// -*- coding: utf-8 -*- // Frink data file for non-changing units. // // This file is used by the Frink calculating tool/programming language: // https://frinklang.org/ // // If you got to this page from a web search because you're trying to do a // unit conversion or manipulation, try it at the following URL: // // https://frinklang.org/frink/ // // Alan Eliasen // eliasen@mindspring.com // // // This file is adapted, modified, and extended from the units database for use // with GNU units, a units conversion program by Adrian Mariano // adrian@cam.cornell.edu, who did a damn fine job collecting much of this. // The GNU units program, in turn, copied much of the data and almost exactly // duplicated its program interface from the Bell Labs units program that // existed way back in UNIX version 7 or before which was published in 1979! // See, for example, // https://web.archive.org/web/20150205032715/http://plan9.bell-labs.com/7thEdMan/v7vol1.pdf (see p. 197) // // // Most units data was drawn from // 1. NIST Special Publication 811, 1995 Edition // 2. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 70th edition // 3. Oxford English Dictionary // 4. Websters New Universal Unabridged Dictionary // 5. Units of Measure by Stephen Dresner // 6. A Dictionary of English Weights and Measures by Ronald Zupko // 7. British Weights and Measures by Ronald Zupko // 8. Realm of Measure by Isaac Asimov // 9. United States standards of weights and measures, their // creation and creators by Arthur H. Frazier. // 10. French weights and measures before the Revolution: a // dictionary of provincial and local units by Ronald Zupko // 11. Weights and Measures: their ancient origins and their // development in Great Britain up to AD 1855 by FG Skinner // 12. The World of Measurements by H. Arthur Klein // 13. For Good Measure by William Johnstone // 14. NTC's Encyclopedia of International Weights and Measures // by William Johnstone // 15. Sizes by John Lord // 16. Sizesaurus by Stephen Strauss // 17. CODATA Recommended Values of Physical Constants available at // https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html // 18. SI Brochure, https://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/ // // Thanks to Jeff Conrad for assistance in ferreting out unit definitions. // ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// // // // Primitive units. Any unit defined to contain a '!' character is a // // primitive unit which will not be reduced any further. All units should // // reduce to primitive units. // // // ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// // Prefixes // Prefixes are defined with the symbol :- to indicate a prefix which cannot // stand by itself (must precede a unit name without intervening spaces) // or with the symbol ::- for a prefix which can be either attached to a unit // or defines a standalone unit. For example, you may want to allow "giga" // to work as a prefix or as a stand-alone synonym for a billion, (generally // you do this just so someone can look up what it means if they forget,) // in which case you would use the ::- operator. If you have a prefix like // "m" for milli, which you don't want to allow to stand alone, use the :- // operator. // // A number specified like "1ee20" with integers for the mantissa and the // exponent are treated as an exact integer, that is, 1ee20 represents // the exact integer 1 followed by 20 zeroes. ("ee" can be thought to // stand for "exact exponent".) This is in contrast to the more standard // "1e20" which is treated as an inexact floating-point number. // // The latest prefixes, ronna, ronto, quetta and quecto were // approved at the 27th CGPM (2022) // https://www.bipm.org/en/cgpm-2022/resolution-3 // https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-many-yottabytes-in-a-quettabyte-extreme-numbers-get-new-names/ quetta ::- 1ee30 ronna ::- 1ee27 yotta ::- 1ee24 // 1E24 Greek or Latin octo, "eight" zetta ::- 1ee21 // 1E21 Latin septem, "seven" exa ::- 1ee18 // 1E18 Greek hex, "six" peta ::- 1ee15 // 1E15 Greek pente, "five" tera ::- 1ee12 // 1E12 Greek teras, "monster" giga ::- 1ee9 // 1E9 Greek gigas, "giant" mega ::- 1ee6 // 1E6 Greek megas, "large" myria ::- 1ee4 // 1E4 Not an official SI prefix kilo ::- 1000 // 1E3 Greek chilioi, "thousand" hecto ::- 100 // 1E2 Greek hekaton, "hundred" deca ::- 10 // 1E1 Greek deka, "ten" deka ::- 10 deci ::- 1/10 // 1E-1 Latin decimus, "tenth" centi ::- 1/100 // 1E-2 Latin centum, "hundred" milli ::- 1/1000 // 1E-3 Latin mille, "thousand" micro ::- 1ee-6 // 1E-6 Latin micro/Greek mikros,"small" nano ::- 1ee-9 // 1E-9 Latin nanus or Greek nanos,"dwarf" pico ::- 1ee-12 // 1E-12 Spanish pico, "a bit" femto ::- 1ee-15 // 1E-15 Danish-Norwegian femten,"fifteen" atto ::- 1ee-18 // 1E-18 Danish-Norwegian atten,"eighteen" zepto ::- 1ee-21 // 1E-21 Latin septem, "seven" yocto ::- 1ee-24 // 1E-24 Greek or Latin octo, "eight" ronto ::- 1ee-27 quecto ::- 1ee-30 Q :- quetta R :- ronna Y :- yotta Z :- zetta E :- exa P :- peta T :- tera G :- giga M :- mega k :- kilo h :- hecto da :- deka d :- deci c :- centi m :- milli // Alan's notes: // The "micro" prefix requires non-ASCII characters. It is defined as its // Unicode charactor \u00b5 below. // // Should we adopt the questionable Electrical Engineer policy of using // "u" to indicate micro? I've added "uF" for microfarad later on to // tackle the most common case. I just can't bring myself to kludge in // the double-awful "MFD" that capacitor manufacturers use to mean // "microfarad", which is wrong in at least 3 ways. \u00b5 :- micro // Unicode "MICRO SIGN" n :- nano p :- pico f :- femto a :- atto z :- zepto y :- yocto r :- ronto q :- quecto // // SI (International System of Units) base dimensions // // The special operator =!= defines a new base dimension. This is a dimension // that is orthogonal to all other base dimensions. For example, the SI // defines base dimensions for length (m), mass (kg), time (s), etc., and other // unit types are defined in terms of these base dimensions. The left-hand- // side is the human-readable name of the base dimension (e.g. "length" or // "mass") and the right-hand-side is the fundamental unit of that dimension // (e.g. "m" for length or "kg" for mass) length =!= m // The 2019 SI definition of the meter is: meter := m // "The metre, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is // defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the speed of // light in vacuum c to be 299_792_458 when expressed in // the unit m s^−1, where the second is defined in terms of // the caesium frequency Δν_Cs." // // In other words, a meter is the distance that light travels // in exactly 1/299792458 seconds. // // Originally meant to be one ten-millionth // of the length along a meridian from the equator // to a pole, but the measurement was off. // // Alan's notes: // The earth's circumference would then be exactly 40 // million meters (which is a good thing to memorize.) time =!= s // The 2019 SI definition of the second is: second := s // "The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined // by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency // Δν_Cs, the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition // frequency of the caesium 133 atom, to be 9_192_631_770 when // expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s^−1." mass =!= kg // The standard unit of mass. // The 2019 SI definition of the kilogram is: // "The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is // defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck // constant h to be 6.62607015e−34 when expressed in // the unit J s, which is equal to kg m^2 s^−1, where the // metre and the second are defined in terms of c and Δν_Cs." // (The defined frequency of the cesium-133 atom.) // // Since the redefinition of the SI in 2019, the definition of // the kilogram is no longer tied // to a physical object, but is now defined in terms of // Planck's constant h, the speed of light, and the meter or // second, which fixes the value of the kilogram in terms of // those constants. // Metrologists are now attempting to create highly-accurate // "watt balances" to measure and define masses accurately // and repeatably in any laboratory, without reference to // an untouchable physical object. // // Before 2019, the mass of the kilogram was defined by an // object called the "international prototype". // // The "international prototype" is a cylinder of platinum // and platinum-iridium alloy which is kept in a series of // vacuum jars in a vault in France. Its mass is *not* // constant. It has gained tens of micrograms from surface // contamination. // http://www.livescience.com/26017-kilogram-gained-weight.html // // Alan's editorializing: // I dislike having a prefixed unit as the base reference. // What a horrible decision. Why don't you just have it go to // ten and make ten a little louder? // // The following comments relate to the pre-2019 definitions // of the kilogram: // // More Alan's editorializing: // This documentary tracks the attempts to tie the definition // of the kilogram to other repeatable constants, such as // Planck's constant. // http://stateoftheunit.com/ // // The BIPM acknowledged that the kilogram, ampere, kelvin, // candela, and mole were troublesome definitions and wants to // try to redefine them in physically meaningful ways. // Some of these objections reflected my objections (dating back // decades) to some of these unit definitions.) // // http://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/new-si/ // 2011 Resolution: http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/24/1/ // 2014 Resolution: http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/25/1/ kilogram := kg gram := 1/1000 kg current =!= A /* The ampere, base unit of electrical current. The 2019 SI definition is: "The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e (in Frink, elementarycharge) to be 1.602176634e−19 when expressed in the unit C (coulomb), which is equal to A s, where the second is defined in terms of Δν_Cs." With the 2019 SI redefinition, this now an exact definition because the value of the elementary charge (the magnitude of the charge of a proton or electron, in Frink, called elementarycharge, often just called e in physics literature) was defined to be exact. */ ampere := A amp := ampere /* Alan's editorializing: The redefinition of the ampere in terms of an exact count of elementary charges is a good thing. However, the number chosen was a little bit weird. Thus, the ampere is defined in terms of the elementary charge and the second as the exact rational number: A = 5000000000000000000000000000/801088317 (approx. 6.2415090744607626e+18) elementarycharge / s which is kind of odd because it's not an integer number of electrons per second. The following comments are historical and relate to the pre-2019 redefinition of the ampere: Before the 2019 definition, the official definition was "The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10^7 newton per meter of length." This was a horrible definition. See more on that below. I'd actually much rather define this in terms of the charge of a fundamental particle. elementarycharge/sec is less arbitrary. I'd actually prefer to have the base unit be charge instead of current. However, I know that one person's charge is another person's current due to relative motion. More Alan's editorializing: This definition is impossible to physically reproduce. There are no conductors of infinite length, nor of negligible cross-section available in our universe. Nor is there a perfect vacuum. A perfectly fine definition would count the number of electrons per second. Or just define it exactly as such. Other standards like the astronomical unit (see later in this file) used to use vague, variable, terrible definitions like that of the ampere but finally defined it in exact terms, as a number of meters. The ampere could simply be defined as an exact number of electron charges per second and be perfectly clear. All other electrical units would be defined exactly in terms of that definition. Why bother with anything but an exact definition? While it's hard to count individual electrons, that definition can be made exactly precise. A physically unrealizable definition is not of much use to anyone. In 2011 and 2014, the CGPM acknowledged that this is an untenable definition and is working on a better definition that might be accepted as a multiple of the fundamental electron charge in 2018. http://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/new-si/ 2011 Resolution: http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/24/1/ 2014 Resolution: http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/25/1/ An article called this definition of the ampere a "metrological embarrassment". See: http://phys.org/news/2016-08-ampere.html http://phys.org/news/2008-02-switchyard-electrons.html */ temperature =!= K // The kelvin is the unit of temperature. kelvin := K // The kelvin was redefined in 2019 as: // "The kelvin, symbol K, is the SI unit of thermodynamic // temperature. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical // value of the Boltzmann constant k to be 1.380649e−23 when // expressed in the unit J K^−1, which is equal to // kg m^2 s^−2 K^−1, where the kilogram, metre and second are // defined in terms of h, c and Δν_Cs." (The defined frequency // of the cesium-133 atom.) // In the SI, it was decided by the 13th CGPM that: // "1. the unit of thermodynamic temperature is denoted by // the name "kelvin" and its symbol is "K"; // 2. the same name and the same symbol are used to express // a temperature interval; // 3. a temperature interval may also be expressed in // degrees Celsius" // // See: http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/13/3/ // http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/13/4/ // // Thus, the SI uses the same symbol for absolute // thermodynamic temperature and a temperature interval. // // Before 2019, the kelvin was defined as: // "1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple // point of water." Note that there is a minor discrepancy // between this value and the 273.15 K figure used to set // the zero point of the Celsius scale. The *size* of a // Kelvin or a degree Celsius is the same, but you need // to remember that the offset point is slightly different. // Use the Celsius[x] functions defined below to convert // between these unit systems. currency =!= dollar// The US dollar is chosen arbitrarily to be the primitive // unit of money. The dollar must be defined for use // in the CPISource (providing historical purchasing power // of the dollar) and for CurrencySource (providing // exchange rate information // (and things like the price of Gold)) so // you can change the fundamental unit of currency, but you // have to be able to turn it into a dollar if you want // to use these other sources. // If you want to define your own base currency, and you want // currency conversions to still work, you // should (for now) define the base currency as its 3-letter // ISO-4217 currency code (say, "EUR" or "JPY"). This will // allow the // currency converter to unambiguously figure out which // currency you mean. The units "Euro", "euro", the Euro // symbol \u20ac, the Japanese Yen symbol \u00a5, // the U.K. pound symbol \u0163, and "dollar" are // special cases that also work. // // If you change your base currency, you might get a few // errors about units below that are defined in terms of the // dollar. You can probably comment those out and never miss // them. If you have a 3-letter ISO code for your base // currency, it'll figure out what a "dollar" is later, so // you shouldn't need to hard-code in a conversion rate. amount_of_substance =!= mol mole := mol // An "amount of substance". The 2019 SI definition is: // "The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of // substance. One mole contains exactly 6.02214076e23 // elementary entities. This number is the fixed numerical // value of the Avogadro constant, N_A, when expressed in the // unit mol^−1 and is called the Avogadro number. // The amount of substance, symbol n, of a system is a measure // of the number of specified elementary entities. An // elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an // electron, any other particle or specified group of // particles." // // A mole is referred to as an "amount of substance" which // is simply a count of the "elementary entities" in a system. // As of the 2019 redefinition of the SI, a mol is now // specified to have exactly 6.02214076ee23 items, which is // an exactly-defined integer. // // Previous to 2019, the mol was defined as: // The amount of substance of a system which contains as many // elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of // carbon 12. The elementary entities must be specified and // may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, or other // particles or groups of particles. It is understood that // unbound atoms of carbon 12, at rest and in the ground // state, are referred to. // // Alan's editorializing: // As useful as a mole may be, I really think that a mole is // insufficient by itself. It has to be a mole OF // something. How do you represent that? It'll likely // require an object that implements some interface and // overloaded operators so you can still write stuff like // "1 mol carbon" // // I also think that the definition of a mol is another // place where the SI made an unnecessary addition of a new // fundamental dimension that is not required to make an // orthogonal system. (The mol was introduced as its own // base unit with the 14th CGPM in 1971). // // A mol is actually just a dimensionless count // (of about 6.02*10^23 "things", be they atoms, molecules, // etc.) See the definition of the "avogadro" unit below // for the (as of 2019) exactly-defined value of this // constant. // // It is thus just essentially a dimensionless number and it // introduces artificiality to make it its own fundamental // base unit. // // The only "meaning" in a mol is that you're working with // 6.02*10^23 things instead of one thing. A mol could // easily be a derived dimensionless unit whose value is // equal to Avogadro's number. (As essentially it was up // until 1971.) It's just a "practical" unit to give // a "practical" size, not because it represents a new // fundamental dimension of measurement. // // As a practical matter, what it did before 2019 was to tie // a more-easily(?) measurable quantity, that of a mass, // (0.012 kg of carbon-12) and thus forced a value for // Avogadro's number, one that may have been hard to count. // // It's also odd in that it's the only definition that says // it's incomplete by itself and that you must specify // a mole of some specific particle or molecule. Yet no // provisions are made for unambiguously specifying how // substances are identified (e.g. normalized names.) // As a result, there is no standardized definition for // communication and writing of a quantity of a specific // substance. // For example, // is "1 mol Li" the same as "1 mol lithium"? // // The fact that this rule says there's not really such // a thing as a (raw) mol, means that there's not one mol, // but an infinite number of different mols, a mol of // lithium being a totally different thing than a mol of // fluorine, and essentially thus incommensurable. // // Poor definition. radian := 1 // The angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc // equal in length to the radius of the circle. // A circle thus subtends an angle of 2 pi radians. // // Alan's editorializing: // Despite what other units programs might have you believe, // radians ARE dimensionless units and making them their own // unit leads to all sorts of arbitrary convolutions in // calculations (at the possible expense of some inclarity if // you don't know what you're doing.) // If you really want radians to be a fundamental unit, // replace the above with "angle =!= radian" // (This will give you a bit of artificiality in calculations.) // // The radian was actually a fundamental base unit in the SI // up until 1974, when they changed it, making it no longer // be a special unit, but just a dimensionless number (which // it is.) See the definition of the "Hz" below for a // discussion of how this broke the SI's definitions of // basic circular / sinusoidal measures, though. sr := 1 // Solid angle which cuts off an area of the surface of steradian := sr// the sphere equal to that of a square with sides of // length equal to the radius of the sphere. // A sphere thus subtends 4 pi steradians. // Also a dimensionless unit (length^2/length^2) // If you have radians as a fundamental unit, and want to // have steradians tracked correctly, replace the first // definition with // sr := radian^2 information =!= bit // Basic unit of information (entropy). // // Alan's editorializing: I'm considering changing // bits to be dimensionless units--it makes problems in // information theory come out more reasonably. luminous_intensity =!= cd candela := cd // unit of luminous intensity. The official 2019 SI definition: // "The candela, symbol cd, is the SI unit of luminous // intensity in a given direction. It is defined by taking // the fixed numerical value of the luminous efficacy of // monochromatic radiation of frequency 540e12 Hz, K_cd, to be // 683 when expressed in the unit lm W^−1, which is equal to // cd sr W^−1 , or cd sr kg^−1 m^−2 s^3, where the kilogram, // metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and Δν_Cs." // // Or, previously to 2019, and perhaps more clearly, // "The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given // direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation // of frequency 540 x 10^12 hertz and that has a radiant // intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian." // // (This differs from radiant // intensity (W/sr) in that it is adjusted for human // perceptual dependence on wavelength. The frequency of // 540e12 Hz (yellow) is where human perception is most // efficient.) // // Alan's editorializing: // I think the candela is a scam, and I am completely // opposed to it. Some good-for-nothing lighting "engineers" // or psychologists probably got this perceptually-rigged // abomination into the whole otherwise scientific endeavor. // // What an unbelievably useless and stupid unit. Is light // at 540.00000001 x 10^12 Hz (or any other frequency) zero // candela? Is this expected to be an impulse function at // this frequency? Oh, wait, the Heisenberg Uncertainty // Principle makes this impossible. No mention for // correction (ideally along the blackbody curve) for other // wavelengths? Damn you, 16th CGPM! Damn you all to hell! // // Other bodies have attempted to define curves, often based // on studies of human perception, to try and define the // obvious deficiencies of this inadequate definition of the // candela at anything more than this infinitesimal point. // However, these are completely outside of any official SI // definition, so no authoritative definition is possible. // Bodies like the International Commission for Illumination // (CIE) made an attempt with their various colorspaces, // including "CIE 1931" and later versions that are more // accurate but actually used less often. // // The most-commonly used, CIE 1931, is long known to be off // by a factor of 7 from average human perception at short // wavelengths, (compare it to the 1978 definition at // 400 nm) and is arbitrarily truncated before the // limits of human perception. In addition, no one // perceptually-weighted curve is possible because the human // eye is differently sensitive for photopic (bright-light, // cone cells) and scotopic (dark-adapted, rod cells), or // if the illumination occurs over narrower or wider fields. // Many incremental improvements on these systems have been // proposed, but none are part of the authoritative, // oversimplified definition of the candela, making it // useless for unambiguous definitions that can be agreed // upon or binding to any party. Pronouncements of the CIE // are in no way binding on the BIPM, nor vice-versa, and the // CIE has a proliferation of "standard curves," which all // disagree with each other. Agreements to use one // curve or another thus have to be agreed *outside* the // definitions of the SI, and, of course, parties can // disagree on which curve to use. You can use CIE 1931, // or CIE 1978, or the "CIE 1988 Modified 2° Spectral // Luminous Efficiency Function for Photopic Vision" or the // 2005 improvements by Sharpe, Stockman, Jagla & Jägle, // or ISO 23539:2005(E), or something else... // // If you can point me to *anywhere* that the BIPM clearly // mandates and defines a *single* luminosity function to // unambiguously define the candela, please // send it to me (eliasen@mindspring.com). Hint: they don't. // You'll find that they all weasel out of an authoritative // definition by saying "approved the use of" (usually // multiple functions) or citing a couple of acceptable, // non-agreeing options and saying one may be "preferred". // If they define more than one allowed function, then // there's obviously no single definition of "candela". // If they're not absolutely clear whether you use the // photopic or scotopic function, then they've defined two // different candelas, which better be named different // things. You can't have two different definitions of a // meter, or a candela. And even the CIE notes that // "for mesopic vision, there is at present no agreed method // of weighting, but this problem is currently being // investigated by the CIE." // http://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/Monographie1983-1.pdf // // What really annoys me is that the official definitions // don't come right out and say, "okay, we're sorry, this // is obviously a useless definition for any other // wavelength, and it doesn't even make sense for *that* // wavelength. We know. It sucks. The guys at the 16th // CGPM went out and got drunk the night before instead of // working on the definition, and they all sheepishly passed // this in in the morning, and went back to bed. They got // fired later, make no doubt. It's on our list of bugs. // We're sending in the Wolf to fix it directly. // Here is the workaround, but we consider it broken // and we're ashamed to have ever put it forth in this // useless form and left it this way for 30 years. // For now, here is one single draft standard equation to use // for other wavelengths. Download it here. We promise // that the link works and contains a computer-readable // table (though we're too sloppy to actually create a good // smooth polynomial fit that would be a lot cleaner and // easier for everyone) and is not some PDF of a terrible // unreadable old re-scan, stashed away somewhere, making // you wonder if it's valid today, nor is it a ridiculous CIE // document that you have to *pay* a hundred bucks for, when // we could and absolutely need to distribute it for free. // // "We've had the internet for weeks now. It represents // our best effort and just has to go through a bunch of // political committees but we promise that we'll try to // keep it constant if possible." They never even *hint* // with the definition that it's clearly insufficient, and // obviously physically unrealizable in any way you look at // it, which is what makes it so annoying. There's not even // a "buy freaking CIE spec xxxyyy to get the rest of the // details." Just nothing. Figure it out yourself. // // Update: On April 2, 2007, the BIPM and the CIE finally // signed a vague agreement that they want to work more // closely and hints at a future hope that there will // someday be a single, authoritative definition accepted // and mandated across both bodies. The agreement says that // the expertise for defining a standard curve will fall // under the auspices of the CIE, as "the CIE may decide to // standardize." (No certainty nor timeline; just "maybe // it'll happen someday.") Hopefully this will be followed // by an official pronouncement of the BIPM that a certain // curve is mandated for use in defining the candela. And // hopefully it will be better than the old 1931 curve. // And hopefully the BIPM will, you know, maybe PUBLISH it // somewhere instead of pointing at the root of another web // site and saying "it's one of the documents hidden // somewhere over there but we're not going to tell you // which and we want to see your face when you realize you // have to buy random documents at a hundred dollars a pop." // // Don't hold your breath, though. It's been 30 years since // the modern definition of the candela just to get to this // point. See: // http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/bipm-cie_agreement.pdf // http://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/SIApp2_cd_en.pdf // // The latter hints that perhaps one of the equations in // CIE S 010/E:2004 (possibly superseded) / ISO 23539:2005(E) // is maybe suggested by them, (but there are conflicting // definitions therein, and none are mandated) and they're // not going to help you find it, and when you do, you're // going to realize that the CIE clowns are going to charge // you over a hundred bucks for it. For something that needs // to be free and accessible for anyone trying to understand // this standard. // // We won't tell you if it's been superseded. We // won't point you to an authoritative definition. We'll // cite several equations and leave you to pick one randomly. // We want this unit to remain an unusable mystery! // // In short, candela = EPIC FAIL. // // Update 2019: The official 2019 SI definition still // refuses to acknowledge any of the above issues! "Hey, // we fixed the SI but left this big useless definition in it // just for fun." // Define the default symbol for the imaginary unit, that is, the square // root of negative one. // // The default Unicode codepoint for the imaginary unit. // (DOUBLE-STRUCK ITALIC SMALL I) \u2148 := <> // Also used for the imaginary unit (especially by electrical engineers, who // use "i" to indicate current. // (DOUBLE-STRUCK ITALIC SMALL J) \u2149 := <> // Redefine the letter "i" to also be the imaginary unit i := \u2148 // Define unit combinations // The special operator ||| defines a human-readable name for a combination // of base units. The left-hand side is a combination of units or a unit // name already defined, which will be used to define the dimensions of the // unit name on the right. Note that the description of the base units are set // by the =!= operator (see above). 1 ||| dimensionless m^2 ||| area m^3 ||| volume s^-1 ||| frequency m s^-1 ||| velocity m s^-2 ||| acceleration m kg s^-1 ||| momentum m kg s^-2 ||| force m^2 kg s^-3 ||| power m^-1 kg s^-2 ||| pressure m^2 kg s^-2 ||| energy m^2 kg s^-1 ||| angular_momentum m^2 kg ||| moment_of_inertia m^3 s^-1 ||| flow m^-3 kg ||| mass_density m^3 kg^-1 ||| specific_volume // Reciprocal of mass_density A m^-2 ||| electric_current_density dollar kg^-1 ||| price_per_mass // The following definition is useful if you "shadow" a unit definition with a // local variable. Say, you define a local variable "g" which hides the // definition of the gram unit. With this prefix, you can say: // // unit_g // // and get the original unit. unit_ :- 1 // // Names of some numbers // semi :- 1/2 demi :- 1/2 hemi :- 1/2 half ::- 1/2 third ::- 1/3 quarter ::- 1/4 eighth ::- 1/8 uni :- 1 bi :- 2 tri :- 3 zero := 0 one := 1 two := 2 double := 2 three := 3 triple := 3 treble := 3 four := 4 quadruple := 4 five := 5 quintuple := 5 six := 6 sextuple := 6 seven := 7 septuple := 7 eight := 8 nine := 9 ten := 10 twenty := 20 thirty := 30 forty := 40 fifty := 50 sixty := 60 seventy := 70 eighty := 80 ninety := 90 hundred := 100 thousand := 1000 million := 1ee6 billion := 1ee9 trillion := 1ee12 quadrillion := 1ee15 quintillion := 1ee18 sextillion := 1ee21 septillion := 1ee24 octillion := 1ee27 nonillion := 1ee30 noventillion := nonillion decillion := 1ee33 undecillion := 1ee36 duodecillion := 1ee39 tredecillion := 1ee42 quattuordecillion := 1ee45 quindecillion := 1ee48 sexdecillion := 1ee51 septendecillion := 1ee54 octodecillion := 1ee57 novemdecillion := 1ee60 vigintillion := 1ee63 centillion := 1ee303 googol := 1ee100 // These number terms were described by N. Chuquet and De la Roche in the 16th // century as being successive powers of a million. These definitions are // still used in most European countries. The current US definitions for these // numbers arose in the 17th century and don't make nearly as much sense. // These numbers are listed in the CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics by // Eric W. Weisstein. brbillion := million^2 brtrillion := million^3 brquadrillion := million^4 brquintillion := million^5 brsextillion := million^6 brseptillion := million^7 broctillion := million^8 brnonillion := million^9 brnoventillion := brnonillion brdecillion := million^10 brundecillion := million^11 brduodecillion := million^12 brtredecillion := million^13 brquattuordecillion := million^14 brquindecillion := million^15 brsexdecillion := million^16 brseptdecillion := million^17 broctodecillion := million^18 brnovemdecillion := million^19 brvigintillion := million^20 // These numbers fill the gaps left by the European system above. milliard := 1000 million billiard := 1000 million^2 trilliard := 1000 million^3 quadrilliard := 1000 million^4 quintilliard := 1000 million^5 sextilliard := 1000 million^6 septilliard := 1000 million^7 octilliard := 1000 million^8 nonilliard := 1000 million^9 noventilliard := nonilliard decilliard := 1000 million^10 // For consistency brmilliard := milliard brbilliard := billiard brtrilliard := trilliard brquadrilliard := quadrilliard brquintilliard := quintilliard brsextilliard := sextilliard brseptilliard := septilliard broctilliard := octilliard brnonilliard := nonilliard brnoventilliard := noventilliard brdecilliard := decilliard // The British Centillion would be 1ee600. The googolplex is another // familiar large number equal to 10^googol. // Indian dimensionless numbers (used in English) // See: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Numbering_System lakh := 100 thousand lac := lakh crore := 10 million ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// // // // Derived units which can be reduced to the primitive units // // // ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// // // Named SI derived units (officially accepted) // newton := kg m / s^2 // force N := newton pascal := N/m^2 // pressure or stress Pa := pascal joule := N m // energy J := joule watt := J/s // power W := watt J m^-2 ||| surface_tension coulomb := A s // charge coulomb ||| charge coulomb m^-2 ||| surface_charge_density coulomb m^-3 ||| electric_charge_density C := coulomb volt := W/A // potential difference V := volt volt ||| electric_potential V / m ||| electric_field_strength A / m ||| magnetic_field_strength ohm := V/A // electrical resistance \u2126 := ohm // Official Unicode codepoint OHM SIGN \u03a9 := ohm // "Preferred" Unicode codepoint for ohm // GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMEGA ohm ||| electric_resistance siemens := A/V // electrical conductance S := siemens siemens ||| electric_conductance ohm m ||| electric_resistivity // Resistivity is a specific intrinsic // property of a material that is indepenent // of the size of the piece of material. // Also called "volume resistivity" or // "electrical resistivity" or // "specific electrical resistance." // This is often written as the character rho // in equations. (Which is more commonly used // for density in physical equations.) See: // https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity siemens/m ||| electric_conductivity // This is the inverse of // electric_resisitivity (see above.) // https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity farad := C/V // capacitance farad ||| capacitance F := farad uF := microfarad // Concession to electrical engineers // without adding the questionable "u" // as a general prefix. weber := V s // magnetic flux weber ||| magnetic_flux Wb := weber henry := Wb/A // inductance henry ||| inductance henries := henry // Irregular plural H := henry tesla := Wb/m^2 // magnetic flux density tesla ||| magnetic_flux_density T := tesla hertz := s^-1 // frequency Hz := hertz // // Alan's Editorializing: Here is YET ANOTHER place where the SI made a // really stupid definition. Let's follow their chain of definitions, shall // we, and see how it leads to absolutely ridiculous results. // The Hz is currently defined simply as inverse seconds. (1/s). // See: https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/units.html // // The base unit of frequency in the SI *used* to be "cycles per second". // This was fine and good. However, in 1960, the BIPM made the // change to make the fundamental unit of frequency to // be "Hz" which they defined as inverse seconds (without qualification.) // // Then, in 1974, they changed the radian from its own base unit in the SI // to be a dimensionless number, which it indeed is (it's a length divided by // a length.) That change was correct and good in itself. // // However, the definition of the Hz was *not* corrected at the same // time that the radian was changed. Thus, we have the conflicting SI // definition of the radian as the dimensionless number 1 (without // qualification) and Hz as 1/s. (Without qualification.) // // This means that, if you follow the rules of the SI, // 1 Hz = 1/s = 1 radian/s which is simply inconsistent and violates basic // ideas of sinusoidal motion, and is simply a stupid definition. // The entire rest of the world, up until that point, knew that 1 Hz needs to // be equal to *2 pi* radians/s or be changed to mean *cycles/second* for // these to be reconcilable. If you use "Hz" to mean cycles/second, say, // in sinusoidal motion, as the world has done for a century, know that the SI // made all your calculations wrong. A couple of times, in different ways. // // This gives the wonderful situation that the SI's Hz-vs-radian/s definitions // have meant completely different things in the timeperiods: // // * pre-1960 // * 1960 to 1974 // * post-1974 // // // Thus, anyone trying to mix the SI definitions for Hz and angular // frequencies (e.g. radians/s) will get utterly wrong answers that don't // match basic mathematical reality, nor match any way that Hz was ever used // for describing, say, sinusoidal motion. // // Beware the SI's broken definition // of Hz. You should treat the radian as being correct, as a fundamental // dimensionless property of the universe that falls out of pure math like // the Taylor series for sin[x], and you should treat the Hz as being a // fundamental property of incompetence by committee. // // One could consider the CGPM in 1960 to have made the original mistake, // re-defining Hz in a way that did not reflect its meaning up to that point, // or the CGPM in 1974 to have made the absolutely huge mistake that made // the whole system inconsistent and wrong, and clearly broke the definition // of Hz-vs-radian/s used everywhere in the world, turning it into a broken, // self-contradictory mess that it is now. // // Either way, if I ever develop a time machine, I'm going to go back and // knock both groups' heads together. At a frequency of about 1 Hz. Or // better yet, strap them to a wheel and tell them I'm going to spin one group // at a frequency of 1 Hz, and the other at 1 radian/s and let them try to // figure out which one of those stupid inconsistent definitions means what. // Hint: It'll depend on which time period I do it in, I guess, thanks to // their useless inconsistent definition changes. // // It's as if this bunch of geniuses took a well-understood term like "day" // and redefined it to mean "60 minutes". It simply breaks every historical // use, and present use, and just causes confusion and a blatant source of // error. // // Frink tries to follow the most authoritative international standards bodies // for all of its definitions. However, when authoritative international // standards bodies change definitions silently to make them inconsistent // with their previous definitions and with centuries of fundamental // mathematical definitions, then Frink would be negligent to not try to // warn you of the huge incompatibilities in the strongest possible way. // // One of Frink's design goals is: "When in doubt, be pedantic. Explain to // people how their calculation might be problematic and help them to write // it in a more standardized, unambiguous way." The re-definition of the Hz // is an actively damaging change that has to be warned about in the strongest // possible terms. // // In summary: Frink grudgingly follows the SI's ridiculous, broken definition // of "Hz". You should not use "Hz". The SI's definition of Hz should be // considered harmful and broken. Instead, if you're talking about circular // or sinusoidal motion, use terms like "cycles/sec" "revolutions/s", // "rpm", "rps", "circle/min", etc. and Frink will do the right thing because // it doesn't involve the stupid SI definition that doesn't match what any // human knows about sinusoidal motion. // // WARNING: Use of "Hz" will cause communication problems, errors, and make // one party or another look insane in the eyes of the other. // // In other words, if you use the Hz in the way it's currently defined by the // SI, as equivalent to 1 radian/s, you can point to the SI definitions and // prove that you follow their definitions precisely. And your physics // teacher will *still* fail you and your clients will think you're completely // incompetent because 1 Hz = 2 pi radians/s. And it has for centuries. // You are both simultaneously both right and both wrong. // You cannot win. // You are perfectly right. You are perfectly wrong. You look dumb and // unreasonable. The person arguing the opposite looks dumb and unreasonable. // // Hz == YOU CANNOT WIN // // (Insert "IT'S A TRAP" image here.) cesiumfrequency := 9_192_631_770 s^-1 // The cesium frequency which defines // the second: The unperturbed ground-state // hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium // 133 atom Δν_Cs := cesiumfrequency J/K ||| heat_capacity J kg^-1 K^-1 ||| specific_heat_capacity // // time // sec := s minute := 60 s min := minute hour := 60 min hr := hour day := 24 hr d := day da := day week := 7 day wk := week sennight := 7 day fortnight := 14 day blink := 1ee-5 day // Actual human blink takes 1/3 second ce := 1ee-2 day // // units derived easily from SI units // gm := gram g := gram tonne := 1000 kg t := tonne metricton := tonne sthene := tonne m / s^2 funal := sthene pieze := sthene / m^2 quintal := 100 kg bar := 1ee5 Pa // About 1 atm vac := millibar micron := micrometer// One millionth of a meter bicron := picometer // One brbillionth of a meter cc := cm^3 are := 100 m^2 liter := 1000 cc // The liter was defined in 1901 as the oldliter := 1.000028 dm^3// space occupied by 1 kg of pure water at l := liter // the temperature of its maximum density // under a pressure of 1 atm. This was // supposed to be 1000 cubic cm, but it // was discovered that the original // measurement was off. In 1964, the // liter was redefined to be exactly 1000 // cubic centimeters. L := liter // This unit and its symbol l were adopted by // the CIPM in 1879. The alternative symbol for // the liter, L, was adopted by the CGPM in 1979 // in order to avoid the risk of confusion // between the letter l and the number 1. Thus, // although both l and L are internationally // accepted symbols for the liter, to avoid this // risk the preferred symbol for use in the // United States is L. mho := siemens // Inverse of ohm, hence ohm spelled backward galvat := ampere // Named after Luigi Galvani angstrom := 1ee-10 m // Convenient for describing molecular sizes \u212b := angstrom // Official Unicode codepoint for // Angstrom symbol: ANGSTROM SIGN \u00c5 := angstrom // "Preferred" Unicode codepoint for // Angstrom symbol: // LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A WITH RING ABOVE xunit := 1.00202e-13 meter// Used for measuring wavelengths siegbahn := xunit // of X-rays. It is defined to be // 1/3029.45 of the spacing of calcite // planes at 18 degC. It was intended // to be exactly 1e-13 m, but was // later found to be off slightly. fermi := 1ee-15 m // Convenient for describing nuclear sizes // Nuclear radius is from 1 to 10 fermis barn := 1ee-28 m^2 // Used to measure cross section for // particle physics collision, said to // have originated in the phrase "big as // a barn". shed := 1ee-24 barn// Defined to be a smaller companion to the // barn, but it's too small to be of // much use. brewster := micron^2/N // measures stress-optical coef diopter := m^-1 // measures reciprocal of lens focal length fresnel := 1ee12 Hz // occasionally used in spectroscopy shake := 1ee-8 sec svedberg := 1ee-13 s // Used for measuring the sedimentation // coefficient for centrifuging. gamma := microgram lambda := microliter spat := 1ee12 m // Rarely used for astronomical measurements preece := 1ee13 ohm m// resistivity planck := J s // action of one joule over one second sturgeon := henry^-1 // magnetic reluctance sturgeon ||| magnetic_reluctance daraf := 1/farad // elastance (farad spelled backwards) leo := 10 m/s^2 poiseuille := N s / m^2 // viscosity mayer := J/(g K) // specific heat capacity mired := microK^-1 // reciprocal color temperature. The name // abbreviates micro reciprocal degree. crocodile := megavolt // used informally in UK physics labs metricounce := 25 g mounce := metricounce finsenunit := 1ee5 W/m^2 // Measures intensity of ultraviolet light // with wavelength 296.7 nm. fluxunit := 1ee-26 W/(m^2 Hz)// Used in radio astronomy to measure // the energy incident on the receiving // body across a specified frequency // bandwidth. [12] jansky := fluxunit // K. G. Jansky identified radio waves coming Jy := jansky // from outer space in 1931. // Basic constants pi := 3.141592653589793238 \u03c0 := pi // Unicode character for pi // as a mathematical constant // GREEK SMALL LETTER PI e := 2.71828182845904523536 // Base of natural logarithm // 'e' was previously used to be // the charge of the electron, but // changed to this. Mathematicians and // particle physicists may battle this // out. EulerMascheroniConstant := 0.577215664901532860606512090082402431042159335939923598805767234884867726777664670936947063291746749 // See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler-Mascheroni_constant c := 299792458 m/s // speed of light in vacuum (exact) // The speed of light is the same to // all observers in all local frames. // The relation between the meter and // the second is thus fixed by this // definition. This is good. light := c lightspeed := c // sure, why not. mu0 := 1.25663706212e-6 N/A^2 // permeability of vacuum // 2018 CODATA value after 2019 redefinition of SI base // units. Uncertainty is +/- 19 in the last 2 digits. // // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?eqmu0 // // Before the 2019 SI redefinition, // mu0 was a defined "exact" constant (but without a // finite decimal representation because pi is // transcendental) with the exact defining value: // 4 pi 1ee-7 N/A^2 // // The value of the ampere and other electrical units // were indirectly defined through this definition. // // After the redefinition, it now is an "experimentally // determined" value with an uncertainty. // It can be written in terms of other units as: // mu0 := 4 pi alpha hbar / (elementarycharge^2 c) // or // mu0 := 2 alpha h / (elementarycharge^2 c) // The latter is maybe preferable because it eliminates // the transcendental number pi mu\u2080 := mu0 // "mu" Unicode subscript 0 \u03bc\u2080 := mu0 // Unicode mu Unicode subscript 0 magneticconstant := mu0 permeabilityofvacuum := mu0 mu0 ||| permeability epsilon0 := 8.8541878128e-12 F/m // permittivity of vacuum // This is the 2018 CODATA value after 2019 redefinition // of SI base units. Uncertainty is +/- 13 in the last // 2 digits. // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?eqep0 // // Before the 2019 SI redefinition, epsilon0 was defined // in terms of the "exact" definitions of mu0 and c, // with the relation // epsilon0 := 1/(mu0 c^2) // // After the 2019 SI redefinition, it is now an inexact // "experimentally determined" value with an uncertainty. \u03b50 := epsilon0 // Unicode epsilon plus normal zero \u03b5\u2080 := epsilon0 // Unicode epsilon Unicode subscript zero permittivityofvacuum := epsilon0 electricconstant := epsilon0 coulombconst := 1/(4 pi epsilon0) // listed as "k_e" or sometimes "k" // The repulsive electric force // between two charged pointlike // particles is: // coulombconst q1 q2 / dist^2 k_e := coulombconst k\u2091 := coulombconst // k Unicode subscript e // Define a combination of units with the same units of measure as the // coulomb constant so it will be suggested. coulombconst ||| electric_force_constant epsilon0 ||| permittivity Z0 := mu0 c // Characteristic impedance of vacuum Z\u2080 := Z0 // Z Unicode subscript zero impedanceofvacuum := Z0 Y0 := 1/(mu0 c) // Characteristic admittance of vacuum Y\u2080 := Y0 // Y Unicode subscript zero admittanceofvacuum := Y0 energy := c^2 // convert mass to energy elementarycharge := 1.602176634ee-19 C // Defined exactly by the SI rules // that take effect on May 20, 2019 // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?e // also called "e" // but that's reserved for the // base of the natural logarithm. electroncharge := - elementarycharge protoncharge := + elementarycharge neutroncharge := 0 elementarycharge upquarkcharge := +2/3 elementarycharge downquarkcharge := -1/3 elementarycharge h := 6.62607015ee-34 J s // Planck's constant, exactly // defined by the SI rules that take effect // on May 20, 2019. // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?h // // As h is now exactly defined, as are the speed // of light c, and the length of the meter m, // this makes the definition of the kilogram // no longer exactly-defined, but // an experimentally-measured value. // // // You can see Jean-Phillipe Uzan talk about the // role of Planck's constant in physics as it // relates to the 2019 SI redefinitions here: // https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yhgb23tAFFs plancksconstant := h \u210e := h // Official Unicode char for Planck's const. hbar := h / (2 pi) \u210f := hbar // Official Unicode char for Planck/2 pi classicalElectronRadius := 2.8179403262e-15 m // 2018 CODATA value // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?re // uncertainty is +/- 13 in the last 2 digits r_e := classicalElectronRadius r\u2091 := classicalElectronRadius // r Unicode subscript e ThomsonCrossSection := 6.6524587321e-29 m^2 // 2018 CODATA value // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?sigmae // The "classical" cross-section of an electron when // illuminated by radiation. // Uncertainty is +/- 60 in the last 2 digits. sigma_e := ThomsonCrossSection sigma\u2091 := ThomsonCrossSection // "sigma" Unicode subscript e \u03c3\u2091 := ThomsonCrossSection // Unicode sigma Unicode subscript e sigma_t := ThomsonCrossSection sigma\u209c := ThomsonCrossSection // "sigma" Unicode subscript t \u03c3\u209c := ThomsonCrossSection // Unicode sigma Unicode subscript t G := 6.67430e-11 N m^2 / kg^2 // Newtonian gravity constant // From 2018 CODATA figures. There is a standard uncertainty in the // last two figures of +/- 15. The uncertainty decreased from 31 // from the 2014 value. // Given by https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bg // The gravitational force between the centers of two (spherelike) // bodies is: // G mass1 mass2 / dist^2 gravitationalconstant := G // Define a combination of units with the same units of measure as the // gravitational constant so it will be suggested. G ||| gravitational_constant au := 149597870700 m // astronomical unit, approximately // the average radius of earth's orbit // around the sun. // Alan's editorializing: // Hooray! In August 2012, the IAU finally // voted on a single exact number for this. // http://www.iau.org/static/resolutions/IAU2012_English.pdf // http://www.nature.com/news/the-astronomical-unit-gets-fixed-1.11416 // Previously, // the Frankensteinian definition was: // "the distance from the Sun at which a particle of // negligible mass, in an unperturbed circular orbit, // would have an orbital period of 365.2568983 days // (a Gaussian year)." // // Gee, thanks for that helpful // definition, guys. Never mind that the sun's mass // is changing or that the definition is experimentally // impossible to calibrate to. // // Thus, they had to post a "Current Best Estimate" // based on external research. The best // estimate published by the IAU for 2009 was the value // above, so Frink just went from an imprecise number // (with uncertainty of about 3 m) to an exact integer. // Previous citation: // http://maia.usno.navy.mil/NSFA/NSFA_cbe.html ua := au // The SI defines "ua" as the international symbol // for the astronomical unit, but the IAU recommends // that "au" be used. See 2012 resolution B2 here: // http://www.iau.org/static/resolutions/IAU2012_English.pdf astronomicalunit := au // // angular measure // circle := 2 pi radian cycle := circle turn := circle revolution := circle rev := circle degree := 1/360 circle arcdegree := degree deg := degree \u00B0 := degree // Unicode degree (angle) symbol arcdeg := arcdegree arcminute := 1/60 degree arcmin := arcminute arcsecond := 1/60 arcmin arcsec := arcsecond mas := milliarcsecond rightangle := 90 degrees quadrant := 1/4 circle quintant := 1/5 circle sextant := 1/6 circle sign := 1/12 circle // Angular extent of one sign of the zodiac pulsatance := radian / sec gon := 1/100 rightangle // measure of grade grade := gon centesimalminute := 1/100 grade centesimalsecond := 1/100 centesimalminute milangle := 1/6400 circle // Official NIST definition. // Another choice is 1ee-3 radian. pointangle := 1/32 circle centrad := 1/100 radian // Used for angular deviation of light // through a prism. brad := 1/256 circle // Binary radian--used to fit angular measurements into // a byte. Questionable but what the hell. // // Solid angle measure // sphere := 4 pi sr squaredegree := 1/180^2 pi^2 sr squareminute := 1/60^2 squaredegree squaresecond := 1/60^2 squareminute squarearcmin := squareminute squarearcsec := squaresecond sphericalrightangle := 1/2 pi sr octant := 1/2 pi sr // // Concentration measures // percent := 1/100 proof := 1/200 // Alcohol content measured by volume at // 60 degrees Fahrenheit. This is a USA // measure. In Europe proof=percent. ppm := 1ee-6 partspermillion := ppm ppb := 1ee-9 partsperbillion := ppb // USA billion ppt := 1ee-12 partspertrillion := ppt // USA trillion karat := 1/24 // measure of gold purity fine := 1/1000 // Measure of gold purity caratgold := karat gammil := mg/l basispoint := 1/100 percent// Used in finance // // Temperature difference // The units below are NOT an absolute temperature measurement in Fahrenheit, // but represents the size of a degree in the specified systems. degcelsius := K degreeCelsius := K // Per https://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/sec04.html#4.2.1.1 // This is allowable in the SI under resolutions 3 and 4 of the 13th CGPM: // http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/13/3/ degC := K // The *size* of a degree in the Celsius scale. // This is identical to the size of a Kelvin. // WARNING: This should only be used when // you're indicating the *difference* between // two temperatures, (say, how much energy to // raise the temperature of a gram of water by 5 // degrees Celsius, *not* for absolute // temperatures. (I wonder if they should go // entirely to eliminate this confusion...) // For calculating absolute temperatures, use // the Celsius[] or C[] functions below. // // In 1741 Anders Celsius introduced a // Temperature scale with water boiling at 0 // degrees and freezing at 100 degrees at // standard pressure. After his death the // fixed points were reversed and the scale // was called the centigrade scale. Due to // the difficulty of accurately measuring the // temperature of melting ice at standard // pressure, the centigrade scale was replaced // in 1954 by the Celsius scale which is // defined by subtracting 273.15 from the // temperature in Kelvins. This definition // differed slightly from the old centigrade // definition, but the Kelvin scale depends on // the triple point of water rather than a // melting point, so it can be measured // accurately. zerocelsius := 273.15ee0 K // In 2019, defined exactly. // The triple point of water is now // experimentally measured. // The BIPM brochure states that "The previous // definition of the kelvin set the temperature // of the triple point of water, T_TPW, to be // exactly 273.16 K. Due to the fact that the // present definition of the kelvin fixes the // numerical value of k instead of T_TPW , the // latter must now be determined experimentally. // At the time of adopting the present definition // T_TPW was equal to 273.16 K with a relative // standard uncertainty of 3.7 × 10 −7 based on // measurements of k made prior to the // redefinition." // https://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/ // This means that the triple point of water is // experimentally measured to be // 273.1600 K with an uncertainty of +/- 1 in the // last digit. // // Previously, this was defined by // the 10th CGPM, 1954, Resolution 3; // CR, 79. The triple point of water was defined // at the same time to be 273.16 Kelvin, and // the reference temperature 273.15 K (the ice // point) to be the scale difference between // Kelvin and Celsius. So, the size of a Kelvin // and a degree Celsius are the same, but // the zero point of the Celsius scale is actually // set to .01 Kelvin below the triple point. degfahrenheit := 5/9 degC // The *size* of a degree in the Fahrenheit scale. degreeFahrenheit := degfahrenheit // The *size* of a degree in the Fahrenheit scale. degF := degfahrenheit // WARNING: These should only be used when // you're indicating the *difference* between // two temperatures, (say, how much energy to // raise the temperature of a gram of water by 5 // degrees Fahrenheit, *not* for absolute // temperatures. (I wonder if they should go // entirely to eliminate this confusion...) // For calculating absolute temperatures, use // the Fahrenheit[] or F[] functions below. // // Fahrenheit defined his temperature scale // by setting 0 to the coldest temperature // he could produce and by setting 96 degrees // to body heat (for reasons unknown). \u2109 := degfahrenheit // Single Unicode codepoint for // DEGREE FAHRENHEIT degreesRankine := 5/9 K degreesrankine := degreesRankine // The Rankine scale has the degrankine := degreesRankine // Fahrenheit degree, but its zero degreerankine := degrankine // is at absolute zero. degR := degrankine Rankine := degreesrankine degreaumur := 10/8 degC // The Reaumur scale was used in Europe and // particularly in France. It is defined // to be 0 at the freezing point of water // and 80 at the boiling point. Reaumur // apparently selected 80 because it is // divisible by many numbers. // Function for converting Fahrenheit to/from standard units // This is a less legible version of the revised function below //Fahrenheit[x] := (x conforms K) ? ((x - zerocelsius) / K) * 9/5 + 32 : ((x conforms 1) ? ((x-32) * 5/9) K + zerocelsius : "Error") Fahrenheit[x] := { if (x conforms K) // If x is already a temperature, convert to F return ((x - zerocelsius) / K) * 9/5 + 32 else if (x conforms 1) // If x is a pure number, treat as Fahrenheit degrees return ((x-32) * 5/9) K + zerocelsius else return "Error" } // TODO: Change the implementation of the following idiom so that it aliases // the function instead of chaining function calls. F[x] := Fahrenheit[x] // Function for converting Celsius to/from standard units Celsius[x] := (x conforms K) ? (x-zerocelsius) / K : ((x conforms 1) ? (x K + zerocelsius) : "Error") C[x] := Celsius[x] Reaumur[x] := (x conforms K) ? (8/10 (x-zerocelsius)) / K : ((x conforms 1) ? (10/8 * x * K + zerocelsius) : "Error") // Physical constants // gravity := 980665/100000 m/s^2 // std acceleration of gravity // (exact) // see https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?gn g_n := gravity g\u2099 := gravity // g with Unicode subscript n gee := gravity gravities := gravity // Irregular plural force := gravity // use to turn masses into forces // Various conventional values atm := 101325 Pa // Standard atmospheric pressure (exact) // See https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?stdatm atmosphere := atm Hg := 13.5951 gram / cm^3 // Density of mercury (defined) mercurydensity := Hg water := gram / cm^3 // Standard density of water (defined) H2O := water H\u2082O := water // H Unicode subscript 2 O wc := water // water column mach := 331.46 m/s // speed of sound in dry air at STP standardtemp := 273.15ee0 K // standard temperature, exactly defined stdtemp := standardtemp // Physico-chemical constants // Atomic mass unit is given by the 2018 CODATA value // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?u atomicmassunit := 1.66053906660e-27 kg // atomic mass unit // error is +/- 50 in last 2 digits // (defined to be 1/12 of the mass of // carbon 12) m_u := atomicmassunit u := atomicmassunit // 1/12 of the mass of carbon 12) m\u1d64 := atomicmassunit // m Unicode subscript u amu := atomicmassunit amu_chem := 1.66026e-27 kg // 1/16 of the weighted average mass of // the 3 naturally occurring neutral // isotopes of oxygen amu_phys := 1.65981e-27 kg // 1/16 of the mass of a neutral // oxygen 16 atom dalton := u // Maybe this should be amu_chem? avogadro := 6.02214076ee23 mol^-1 // Number of items in a mole // Defined exactly by the SI // rules that go into effect // May 20, 2019 // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?na N_A := avogadro boltzmann := 1.380649ee-23 J/K // Boltzmann's constant. // Defined exactly by the SI rules // that go into effect May 20, 2019 boltzmannsconstant := boltzmann // Boltzmann's constant k := boltzmann gasconstant := avogadro k // molar gas constant, // Now exactly defined in terms // of Avogadro's constant and // Boltzmann's constant. // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?r R := gasconstant molarvolume := R stdtemp / atm // Volume occupied by one mole of an // ideal gas at STP. Units m^3/mol molar := mol / l // Unit of concentration (moles/liter) Molar := molar // Sometimes capitalized molar ||| concentration_by_volume molal := mol / kg // Unit of concentration (moles/kg) molal ||| concentration_by_mass m^3/mol ||| molar_volume loschmidt := avogadro / molarvolume // Molecules per cubic meter of an // ideal gas at STP. Loschmidt did // work similar to Avogadro. amagat := loschmidt // Used to measure gas densities stefanboltzmann := 2 pi^5 k^4 / (15 h^3 c^2) // The radiant emittance by a // blackbody sigma := stefanboltzmann // at temperature T is given by // sigma T^4. // Exactly defined as of 2019 but since // pi is transcendental, it doesn't // have a finite representation. // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?sigma s^-3 kg K^-4 ||| radiative_power_constant // This allows Frink to help you // guess that you need the // Stefan-Boltzmann constant. wiendisplacement := 2.897771955e-3 m K // Wien's Displacement Law gives the // frequency at which the the Planck // spectrum has maximum intensity. // The relation is lambda T = b where // lambda is wavelength, T is // temperature and b is the Wien // displacement. This relation is // used to determine the temperature // of stars. This is the 2018 // CODATA value. NIST claims this // is exact, but they give an // equation with a random // unexplained, inexact, divisor, // " b = (h c / k) / 4.965114231... " // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bwien K_J := 2 elementarycharge/h // Josephson Constant // Direct measurement of the volt is difficult. Until // recently, laboratories kept Weston cadmium cells as // a reference, but they could drift. In 1987 the // CGPM officially recommended the use of the // Josephson effect as a laboratory representation of // the volt. The Josephson effect occurs when two // superconductors are separated by a thin insulating // layer. A "supercurrent" flows across the insulator // with a frequency that depends on the potential // applied across the superconductors. This frequency // can be very accurately measured. The Josephson // constant K_J, which is equal to // 2 elementarycharge/h, relates the // measured frequency to the potential. From 1990 to // 2019, the value of the Josephson constant was // specified as as exactly 4.835979ee+14 Hz/V . // The new 2019 SI redefinition caused it to be // changed to a slightly different (but exact // rational number value) See: // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?kjos Josephson_constant := K_J m^-2 s^2 kg^-1 A ||| josephson_constant // This lets Frink help you find the // right constant to multiply by. R_K := h/elementarycharge^2 // Measurement of the ohm also presents difficulties. // The old approach involved maintaining resistances // that were subject to drift. The new standard is // based on the Hall effect. When a current carrying // ribbon is placed in a magnetic field, a potential // difference develops across the ribbon. The ratio // of the potential difference to the current is // called the Hall resistance. Klaus von Klitzing // discovered in 1980 that the Hall resistance varies // in discrete jumps when the magnetic field is very // large and the temperature very low. This enables // accurate realization of the resistance h/e^2 in the // lab. From 1990 to 2019, this was defined as // exactly 25812.807 ohms. The 2019 redefinition of // SI base units cause its definition to change to // another close but exact rational number in terms // of the exactly-defined h and elementarycharge. // // You can see Klaus von Klitzing talk about this // discovery and its implications for the 2019 // redefinition of the SI here: // https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pMnxuA2ljwc von_Klitzing_constant := R_K // Density of mercury and water at different temperatures using the standard // force of gravity. // Hg10C := 13.5708 gram / cm^3 // These units, when used to form // Hg20C := 13.5462 gram / cm^3 // pressure measures, are not accurate // Hg23C := 13.5386 gram / cm^3 // because of considerations of the // Hg30C := 13.5217 gram / cm^3 // revised practical temperature scale. // Hg40C := 13.4973 gram / cm^3 // Hg60F := 13.5574 gram / cm^3 // H2O0C := 0.99987 gram / cm^3 // H2O5C := 0.99999 gram / cm^3 // H2O10C := 0.99973 gram / cm^3 // H2O15C := 0.99913 gram / cm^3 // H2O18C := 0.99862 gram / cm^3 // H2O20C := 0.99823 gram / cm^3 // H2O25C := 0.99707 gram / cm^3 // H2O50C := 0.98807 gram / cm^3 // H2O100C := 0.95838 gram / cm^3 // Masses of elementary particles, as given by 2018 CODATA-recommended values. // https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html electronmass := 9.1093837015e-31 kg // +/- 28 in last 2 digits m_e := electronmass // 2018 CODATA value. // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?me protonmass := 1.67262192369e-27 kg // +/- 51 in last 2 digits m_p := protonmass // 2018 CODATA value. // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mp neutronmass := 1.67492749804e-27 kg // +/- 95 in last 2 digits m_n := neutronmass // 2018 CODATA value. // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mn muonmass := 1.883531627e-28 kg // +/- 42 in last 2 digits m_mu := muonmass m_muon := muonmass // 2018 CODATA value. // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mmu deuteronmass := 3.3435837724e-27 kg // +/- 10 in last 2 digits m_d := deuteronmass // 2018 CODATA value. // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?md alphaparticlemass := 6.6446573357e-27 kg // +/- 20 in last 2 digits m_alpha := alphaparticlemass // 2018 CODATA value. // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mal taumass := 3.16754e-27 kg // +/- 21 in last 2 digits m_tau := taumass // 2018 CODATA value. // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mtau // Atomic constants alpha := elementarycharge^2 / (2 epsilon0 h c) // Can also be calculated as // mu0 c elementarycharge^2 / (2 h) // or, as NIST states, // elementarycharge^2 / (4 pi epsilon0 hbar c) // 2018 CODATA value is 7.2973525693e-3 // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?alph // Standard uncertainty is +/- 11 in the last 2 // decimal places. // // The fine structure constant was // introduced to explain fine // structure visible in spectral // lines. finestructureconstant := alpha // Rydberg constant Rydberg_constant := electronmass elementarycharge^4 / (8 epsilon0^2 h^3 c) // 2018 CODATA value is 10973731.568160 m^-1 // This can also be calculated as electronmass c alpha^2 / (2 h) // There is some discrepancy between this calculated from constants // and the CODATA value. // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?ryd // The standard uncertainty is +/- 21 in the last 2 decimal places. Rinfinity := Rydberg_constant // The wavelengths of a spectral series R_H := 10967760 /m // can be expressed as // 1/lambda = R (1/m^2 - 1/n^2). // where R is a number that various // slightly from element to element. // For hydrogen, R_H is the value, // and for heavy elements, the value // approaches Rinfinity. bohrradius := hbar / (alpha electronmass c) // Bohr radius // This can also be calculated as // alpha / (4 pi Rinfinity) // 2018 CODATA value, 5.29177210903e-11 m // There is some discrepancy between calculating this // in terms of other constants and the CODATA value. // uncertainty is +/- 80 in last // 2 digits. // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bohrrada0 // Planck constants planckmass := (hbar c / G)^(1/2) m_P := planckmass plancktime := hbar / (planckmass c^2) t_P := plancktime plancklength := plancktime c l_P := plancklength plancktemperature := planckmass c^2 / k /* This can also be calculated as planckmass c^2 / k which is also (hbar c^5 / (G k^2))^(1/2) 2018 CODATA value gives this as 1.416785*10^32 K where the uncertainty is +/- 16 in the last 2 digits. https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?plktmp */ T_P := plancktemperature // Particle wavelengths: the Compton wavelength of a particle is // defined as h / (m c) where m is the mass of the particle. electronwavelength := h / (m_e c) lambda_C := electronwavelength Comptonwavelength := electronwavelength protonwavelength := h / (m_p c) lambda_C_p := protonwavelength neutronwavelength := h / (m_n c) lambda_C_n := neutronwavelength // Magnetic moments bohrmagneton := elementarycharge hbar / (2 electronmass) mu_B := bohrmagneton nuclearmagneton := elementarycharge hbar / (2 protonmass) mu_N := nuclearmagneton m^2 A ||| magnetic_moment // Values below are from 2018 CODATA values muonmagneticmoment := -4.49044830e-26 J/T // +/- 10 in last 2 digits mu_mu := muonmagneticmoment // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mumum protonmagneticmoment := 1.41060679736e-26 J/T // +/- 60 in last 2 digits mu_p := protonmagneticmoment // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mup electronmagneticmoment:= -9.2847647043e-24 J/T // +/- 28 in last 2 digits mu_e := electronmagneticmoment // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?muem neutronmagneticmoment := -9.6623651e-27 J/T // +/- 23 in last 2 digits mu_n := neutronmagneticmoment // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?munn deuteronmagneticmoment := 4.330735094e-27 J/T // +/- 11 in last 2 digits mu_d := deuteronmagneticmoment // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mud // // United States units // // linear measure // The US Metric Law of 1866 gave the exact relation 1 meter = 39.37 inches. // From 1893 until 1959, the foot was exactly 1200/3937 meters. In 1959 // the definition was changed to bring the US into agreement with other // countries. Since then, the foot has been exactly 0.3048 meters. At the // same time it was decided that any data expressed in feet derived from // geodetic surveys within the US would continue to use the old definition. inch := 2.54ee0 cm // Exactly 2.54 cm foot := 12 inch feet := foot ft := foot survey ::- 1200/3937 m/ft // Ratio to give survey length geodetic ::- survey statute ::- survey int :- 3937/1200 ft/m // Convert US Survey measures to // international measures inches := inch // Wacky plural in := inch yard := 3 ft yd := yard mile := 5280 ft line := 1/12 inch // Also defined as '.1 in' or as '1e-8 Wb' rod := 11/2 surveyyard rd := rod perch := rod furlong := 40 rod // From "furrow long" statutemile := statute mile league := 3 statute mile // Calories: energy to raise a gram of water one degree celsius cal_IT := 4.1868ee0 J // International Table calorie, 4.1868 J cal_th := 4.184ee0 J // Thermochemical calorie, 4.184 J cal_fifteen := 4.18580 J // Energy to go from 14.5 to 15.5 degC cal_twenty := 4.18190 J // Energy to go from 19.5 to 20.5 degC cal_mean := 4.19002 J // 1/100 energy to go from 0 to 100 degC calorie := cal_IT cal := calorie calorie_IT := cal_IT thermcalorie := cal_th calorie_th := thermcalorie Calorie := kilocalorie // the food Calorie thermie := 1ee6 cal_fifteen// Heat required to raise the // temperature of a tonne of // water from 14.5 to 15.5 degC. // // Units derived from physical constants // inHg := inch gravity Hg // Inches of mercury inH2O := inch gravity water inchmercury := inHg inchesmercury := inHg // Irregular plural mmH2O := mm gravity water mmHg := mm gravity Hg kgf := kg gravity technicalatmosphere := kgf / cm^2 at := technicalatmosphere hyl := kgf s^2 / m // Also gram-force s^2/m according to [15] torr := 101325/760 Pa // Exactly defined. Differs from mmHg by // about 1 part in 7 million. Torr := torr // Accepted symbol is Torr // These units, both named after Evangelista tor := Pa // Torricelli, should not be confused. // Acording to [15] the torr is actually // atm/760 which is slightly different. eV := elementarycharge V // Energy acquired by a particle with charge e electronvolt := eV // when it is accelerated through 1 V lightyear := c (365 + 1/4) day // The 365.25 day year is specified in // NIST publication 811 ly := lightyear lightsecond := c s lightminute := c min parsec := (648000 / pi) au // Unit of length equal to distance pc := parsec // from the sun to a point having // heliocentric parallax of 1 // arcsec (derived from parallax // second). // IAU Resolution B2, 2015 // (link below) cites // two textbooks as saying // that "the parsec is defined as // exactly (648000 / pi) au" // which is equivalent to the // previous definition included here: // au radian / arcsec // but it does not quote // any standards body. // (648000 is 3600 * 180, the // number of arcseconds in a // semicircle. This is thus not a // correct trigonometric scale, but a // small-angle approximation. The // rigorous trigonometric measure // would be given by d = r/tan[theta] // or specifically au / tan[arcsec]) // Note that the parsec is defined // not as the angle when the Earth // is on opposite sides of the Sun, // but half that angle. // https://www.iau.org/static/resolutions/IAU2015_English.pdf // Resolutions of the IAU: // https://www.iau.org/administration/resolutions/general_assemblies/ rydberg := h c Rinfinity // Rydberg energy crith := 0.089885 gram // The crith is the mass of one // liter of hydrogen at standard // temperature and pressure. amagatvolume := molarvolume // Units m^3/mol lorentz := bohrmagneton / (h c)// Used to measure the extent // that the frequency of light // is shifted by a magnetic field. cminv := h c / cm // Unit of energy used in infrared invcm := cminv // spectroscopy. wavenumber := cminv cal_mol := cal / (mol N_A) // kcal/mol is used as a unit of // energy by physical chemists. J_mol := J / (mol N_A) // Suggested by Richard Terrett // You can of course write kJ_mol. // // CGS system based on centimeter, gram and second // dyne := cm gram / s^2 // force dyn := dyne erg := cm dyne // energy poise := gram / (cm s) // viscosity, honors Jean Poiseuille P := poise poise ||| viscosity rhe := poise^-1 // reciprocal viscosity rhe ||| reciprocal_viscosity stokes := cm^2 / s // kinematic viscosity St := stokes stokes ||| kinematic_viscosity stoke := stokes lentor := stokes // old name Gal := cm / s^2 // acceleration, used in geophysics galileo := Gal // for earth's gravitational field // (note that "gal" is for gallon // but "Gal" is the standard symbol // for the gal which is evidently a // shortened form of "galileo".) barye := dyne/cm^2 // pressure barad := barye // old name kayser := 1/cm // Proposed as a unit for wavenumber balmer := kayser // Even less common name than "kayser" kine := cm/s // velocity bole := g cm / s // momentum pond := gram force glug := gram force s^2 / cm // Mass which is accelerated at // 1 cm/s^2 by 1 gram force darcy := centipoise cm^2 /(s atm)// Measures permeability to fluid flow. // One darcy is the permeability of a // medium that allows a flow of cc/s of // a liquid of centipoise viscosity // under a pressure gradient of atm/cm. mobileohm := cm / (dyn s) // mobile ohm, measure of mechanical mechanicalohm := dyn s / cm // mechanical resistance acousticalohm := dyn s / cm^5 // ratio of the sound pressure of // 1 dyn/cm^2 to a source of strength // 1 cm^3/s ray := acousticalohm rayl := dyn s / cm^3 // Specific acoustical resistance eotvos := 1ee-9 Gal/cm // Change in gravitational acceleration // over horizontal distance // Electromagnetic units derived from the abampere abampere := 10 A // Current which produces a force of abamp := abampere // 2 dyne/cm between two infinitely aA := abampere // long wires that are 1 cm apart biot := aA // alternative name for abamp Bi := biot abcoulomb := abamp sec abcoul := abcoulomb abvolt := dyne cm / (abamp sec) abfarad := abampere sec / abvolt abhenry := abvolt sec / abamp abohm := abvolt / abamp abmho := abohm^-1 gauss := abvolt sec / cm^2 Gs := gauss maxwell := abvolt sec // Also called the "line" Mx := maxwell oersted := gauss / mu0 Oe := oersted gilbert := gauss cm / mu0 Gb := gilbert Gi := gilbert unitpole := 4 pi maxwell // Gaussian system: electromagnetic units derived from statampere. // // Note that the Gaussian units are often used in such a way that Coulomb's law // has the form F= q1 * q2 / r^2. The constant 1/(4*pi*epsilon0) // is incorporated // into the units. From this, we can get the relation force=charge^2/dist^2. // This means that the simplification esu^2 = dyne cm^2 can be used to simplify // units in the Gaussian system, with the curious result that capacitance can // be measured in cm, resistance in sec/cm, and inductance in sec^2/cm. These // units are given the names statfarad, statohm and stathenry below. statampere := 10 A cm / (s c) statamp := statampere statvolt := dyne cm / (statamp sec) statcoulomb := statamp s esu := statcoulomb statcoul := statcoulomb statfarad := statamp sec / statvolt cmcapacitance := statfarad stathenry := statvolt sec / statamp statohm := statvolt / statamp statmho := statohm^-1 statmaxwell := statvolt sec franklin := statcoulomb debye := 1ee-18 statcoul cm// unit of electrical dipole moment debye ||| electrical_dipole_moment helmholtz := debye/angstrom^2 // Dipole moment per area jar := 1000 statfarad // approx capacitance of Leyden jar // // Some historical eletromagnetic units // Ah := ampere hour // so you can write stuff like mAh intampere := 0.999835 A // Defined as the current which in one intamp := intampere // second deposits .001118 gram of // silver from an aqueous solution of // silver nitrate. intfarad := 0.999505 F intvolt := 1.00033 V intohm := 1.000495 ohm // Defined as the resistance of a // uniform column of mercury containing // 14.4521 gram in a column 1.063 m // long and maintained at 0 degC. daniell := 1.042 V // Meant to be electromotive force of a // Daniell cell, but in error by .04 V faraday := N_A elementarycharge mol // Charge that must flow to deposit or faraday_phys := 96521.9 C // liberate one gram equivalent of any faraday_chem := 96495.7 C // element. (The chemical and physical // values are off slightly from what is // obtained by multiplying by amu_chem // or amu_phys. These values are from // a 1991 NIST publication.) Note that // there is a Faraday constant which is // equal to N_A e and hence has units of // C/mol. kappline := 6000 maxwell // Named by and for Gisbert Kapp siemensunit := 0.9534 ohm // Resistance of a meter long column of // mercury with a 1 mm cross section. // // Photometric units // candle := 1.02 candela // Standard unit for luminous intensity hefnerunit := 0.9 candle // in use before candela hefnercandle := hefnerunit // violle := 20.17 cd // luminous intensity of 1 cm^2 of // platinum at its temperature of // solidification (2045 K) lumen := cd sr // Luminous flux lm := lumen // talbot := lumen s // Luminous energy lumberg := talbot talbot ||| luminous_energy m^-2 cd sr ||| illuminance lux := lm/m^2 // Illuminance or exitance (luminous lx := lux // flux incident on or coming from phot := lumen / cm^2 // a surface) ph := phot // footcandle := lumen/ft^2 // Illuminance from a 1 candela source // at a distance of one foot metercandle := lumen/m^2 // Illuminance from a 1 candela source // at a distance of one meter mcs := metercandle s// luminous energy per area, used to // measure photographic exposure // Luminance measures nit := cd/m^2 // Luminance: the intensity per projected stilb := cd / cm^2 // area of an extended luminous source. sb := stilb // (nit is from latin nitere = to shine.) apostilb := cd/(pi m^2) asb := apostilb blondel := apostilb // Named after a French scientist. nox := 1ee-3 lux // These two units were proposed for skot := 1ee-3 apostilb// measurements relating to dark adapted // eyes. // Equivalent luminance measures. These units are units which measure // the luminance of a surface with a specified exitance which obeys // Lambert's law. (Lambert's law specifies that luminous intensity of // a perfectly diffuse luminous surface is proportional to the cosine // of the angle at which you view the luminous surface.) equivalentlux := cd / (pi m^2) // luminance of a 1 lux surface equivalentphot := cd / (pi cm^2) // luminance of a 1 phot surface lambert := cd / (pi cm^2) footlambert := cd / (pi ft^2) // Some luminance data from the IES Lighting Handbook, 8th ed, 1993 sunlum := 1.6e9 cd/m^2 // at zenith sunillum := 100e3 lux // clear sky sunillum_o := 10e3 lux // overcast sky sunlum_h := 6e6 cd/m^2 // value at horizon skylum := 8000 cd/m^2 // average, clear sky skylum_o := 2000 cd/m^2 // average, overcast sky moonlum := 2500 cd/m^2 // // Astronomical time measurements // anomalisticyear := 365.2596 days // The time between successive // perihelion passages of the // earth. siderealyear := 365.256360417 day // The time for the earth to make // one revolution around the sun // relative to the stars. tropicalyear := 365.242198781 day // The mean interval between vernal // equinoxes. Differs from the // sidereal year by 1 part in // 26000 due to precession of the // earth about its rotational axis // combined with precession of the // perihelion of the earth's // orbit. gaussianyear := 365.2690 days // The orbital period of a body in // circular orbit at a distance of // 1 au from the sun. Calculated // from Kepler's third law. siderealday := 23 hour + 56 min + 4.090530833 s // From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_day // The sidereal day is the interval siderealhour := 1/24 siderealday // between two successive transits siderealminute := 1/60 siderealhour // of a star over the meridian, siderealsecond := 1/60 siderealminute// or the time required for the // earth to make one rotation // relative to the stars. The // more usual solar day is the // time required to make a // rotation relative to the sun. // Because the earth moves in its // orbit, it has to turn a bit // extra to face the sun again, // hence the solar day is slightly // longer. solarday := day // The time for the earth to rotate // on its axis relative to the sun. anomalisticmonth := 27.55454977 day // Time from perigee to perigee nodicalmonth := 27.2122199 day // The nodes are the points where draconicmonth := nodicalmonth // an orbit crosses the ecliptic. draconiticmonth := nodicalmonth // This is the time required to // travel from the ascending node // to the next ascending node. siderealmonth := 27.321661 day // Time required for the moon to // orbit the earth lunarmonth := 29.5305555 day // Time between full moons. Full synodicmonth := lunarmonth // moon occur when the sun and lunation := synodicmonth // moon are on opposite sides of lune := 1/30 lunation // the earth. Since the earth lunour := 1/24 lune // moves around the sun, the moon // has to revolve a bit farther to // get into the full moon // configuration. year := tropicalyear yr := year month := 1/12 year // This is obviously an average for the // limiting case... so is accurate in the // long term but useless for adding an // offset to a specific date. mo := month decade := 10 years century := 100 years centuries := century // Irregular plural millennium := 1000 years millennia := millennium solaryear := year lunaryear := 12 lunarmonth calendaryear := 365 day commonyear := 365 day leapyear := 366 day julianyear := 365.25 day juliancentury := 36525 day juliancenturies := 36525 day gregorianyear := 365.2425 day islamicyear := 354 day // A year of 12 lunar months. They islamicleapyear := 355 day // began counting on July 16, AD 622 // when Muhammad emigrated to Medina // (the year of the Hegira). They need // 11 leap days in 30 years to stay in // sync with the lunar year which is a // bit longer than the 29.5 days of the // average month. islamicmonth := 1/12 islamicyear// They have 29 day and 30 day months. cron := 1ee6 years lustrum := 5 years // The Lustrum was a Roman // purification ceremony that took // place every five years. // Classically educated Englishmen // used this term. // Data on the planets. // There is no single clearinghouse or CODATA equivalent for best-known data // on the planets. // Maybe use: // https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/ // as a starting point, but drill down to the detail pages because that top // overview page rounds drastically. // The following are sidereal days unless otherwise noted mercuryday := 58.6462 day venusday := 243.01 day // retrograde earthday := siderealday marssiderealday := 24 hours + 37 min + 22.663 sec marssolarday := 24 hours + 39 min + 35.24409 sec marsday := marssolarday // The common "sol" definition. jupiterday := 0.41354 day saturnday := 0.4375 day uranusday := 0.65 day // retrograde neptuneday := 0.768 day plutoday := 6.3867 day // Solar days // Planetary sidereal years mercuryyear := 86.96 day venusyear := 224.68 day earthyear := siderealyear marsyear := 686.95 day jupiteryear := 11.862 tropicalyear saturnyear := 29.458 tropicalyear uranusyear := 84.012 tropicalyear neptuneyear := 164.798 tropicalyear plutoyear := 248.5 tropicalyear // // Some other astronomical values // sunmass := 1.9891e30 kg solarmass := sunmass // Common unit name sunradius := 696342. km // Plus/minus 65 km, // http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/info/press-releases/solar_radius/ sunpower := 3.86e26 watts landarea := 148.847e6 km^2 oceanarea := 361.9e6 km^2 oceanvolume := 1335e6 km^3 // All Earth's oceans // ETOPO1 data, https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_ocean_volumes.html moonmass := 7.3483e22 kg moonradius := 1738. km // mean value // Distances sundist := 1.0000010178 au// mean earth-sun distance sundist_near := 1.471e11 m // earth-sun distance at perihelion sundist_far := 1.521e11 m // earth-sun distance at aphelion // Average distances between planets and the sun. mercurydist := 57910. Mm venusdist := 108200. Mm earthdist := sundist marsdist := 227940. Mm // https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/jupiterfact.html jupiterdist := 778.57e6 km saturndist := 1429400. Mm uranusdist := 2870990. Mm neptunedist := 4497070. Mm plutodist := 5913520. Mm moondist := 384400. km // mean earth-moon distance mercurymass := 0.33022e24 kg venusmass := 4.8690e24 kg marsmass := 0.64191e24 kg earthmass := 5.9742e24 kg // https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/jupiterfact.html jupitermass := 1898.19e24 kg saturnmass := 568.5e24 kg uranusmass := 86.625e24 kg neptunemass := 102.78e24 kg plutomass := 0.0127e24 kg mercuryradius := 2439. km venusradius := 6052. km marsradius := 3397. km earthradius := 6371.01 km // mean +/- 0.02 km // https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/jupiterfact.html jupiterradius := 69911. km // Volumetric mean radius jupiterradius_equatorial := 71492. km // (1 bar level) jupiterradius_polar := 66854. km // saturnradius := 60268. km uranusradius := 25559. km neptuneradius := 24764. km plutoradius := 1185. km // July 13, 2015, +/- 10 // http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/News-Center/News-Article.php?page=20150713 // These use the WGS84 datum, which is currently most commonly used // in mapping. earthradius_equatorial := 6378137. m earthradius_polar := 6356752.3142 m earth_flattening := (earthradius_equatorial-earthradius_polar)/earthradius_equatorial // http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/UsefulData/UTMFormulas.HTM // http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/phys_props_earth.html earthvolume := 4/3 pi earthradius_equatorial^2 earthradius_polar // Larger moons... their distances are the average distances from their planet. // Mars phobosdist := 9378.5 km phobosmass := 1.08e16 kg deimosdist := 23458. km deimosmass := 1.8e15 kg // Jupiter // Io is Jupiter I iodist := 422000. km ioradius := 1815. km iomass := 8.93e22 kg // Europa is Jupiter II europadist := 670900. km europaradius := 1569. km europamass := 4.80e22 kg // Ganymede is Jupiter III ganymededist := 1070000. km ganymederadius := 2631. km ganymedemass := 1.48e23 kg // Callisto is Jupiter IV callistodist := 1883000. km callistoradius := 2400. km callistomass := 1.08e23 kg // Saturn titandist := 1221850. km titanradius := 2575. km titanmass := 1.35e23 kg // Pluto charondist := 19640. km charonradius := 604. km // http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/News-Center/News-Article.php?page=20150713 charonmass := 1.90e21 kg moongravity := 1.62 m/s^2 // General cosmological observations hubbleconstant := 67.8 km/s/megaparsec // WMAP data, +/- 0.9 km/s/megaparsec // From Sky & Telescope, July 2015 p.30 H_0 := hubbleconstant universeage := 13.799 billion years // Error is 38 million years // Source: ibid // Inverse time units annually := 1/year annual := annually yearly := annual daily := 1/day weekly := 1/week monthly := 1/month hourly := 1/hour // Perfect intervals octave := 2 majorthird := 5/4 minorthird := 6/5 musicalfourth := 4/3 musicalfifth := 3/2 majorsecond := musicalfifth^2 / octave majorsixth := musicalfourth majorthird minorsixth := musicalfourth minorthird majorseventh := musicalfifth majorthird minorseventh := musicalfifth minorthird pythagoreanthird := majorsecond musicalfifth^2 / octave syntoniccomma := pythagoreanthird / majorthird pythagoreancomma := musicalfifth^12 / octave^7 // Equal tempered definitions semitone := octave^(1/12) // The Hartree system of atomic units, derived from fundamental units // of mass (of electron), action (reduced Planck's constant, that is hbar), // electron charge, and Coulomb's constant. // // The so-called Hartree "atomic units" system // (as opposed to the Rydberg atomic units system, which differs in the // choice of mass and charge) defines the following // units to be dimensionless with value of 1: (The names below are their Frink // names.) // // * electronmass // * elementarycharge // * hbar (Planck's constant divided by (2 pi)) // * coulombconst // // See: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_units // // Note that this "atomicmass" unit is NOT the "atomicmassunit" (also called // "amu" or "m_u" or "u". See https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?u // Should it be named something else to avoid confusion? atomicmass := electronmass atomiccharge := elementarycharge atomicaction := hbar // Hartree atomic units derived units atomiclength := bohrradius atomictime := hbar^3/(coulombconst^2 atomicmass elementarycharge^4) // Period of first Bohr orbit atomicvelocity := atomiclength / atomictime atomicenergy := hbar / atomictime hartree := atomicenergy Hartree := hartree E_h := hartree // Synonym used at // https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?hr // // These thermal units treat entropy as charge, from [5] // thermalcoulomb := J/K // entropy thermalampere := W/K // entropy flow thermalfarad := J/K^2 thermalohm := K^2/W // thermal resistance fourier := thermalohm thermalhenry := J K^2/W^2 // thermal inductance thermalvolt := K // thermal potential difference // surveyor's measure surveyorschain := 66 surveyft surveyorspole := 1/4 surveyorschain surveyorslink := 1/100 surveyorschain chain := surveyorschain surveychain := chain ch := chain link := surveyorslink acre := 43560 surveyfoot^2 // NIST Handbook 44 has a // typographical error (forgetting // to underline feet in one place // on middle of page C-16 in 2003 // edition) with // respect to this, but it's // clear from corroborating // different figures in that // document and NIST Special // Publication 811, Sec. B.6, // that the survey foot is // the proper definition. Have // filed errata with NIST and // requested confirmation. // 2003-08-27 // Received confirmation (years // later) that all of my reported // errors were indeed errors and // would be fixed. Note that // it was apparently not fixed until the 2007 // edition. 2010 edition of NIST Handbook 44 is // apparently correct. (see section C-2.) // http://ts.nist.gov/WeightsAndMeasures/pubs.cfm intacre := 43560 ft^2 // Acre based on international ft acrefoot := acre surveyfoot acrefeet := acrefoot // Irregular plural section := surveymile^2 township := 36 section homestead := 160 acre // Area of land granted by the 1862 Homestead // Act of the United States Congress gunterschain := surveyorschain engineerschain := 100 ft engineerslink := 1/100 engineerschain ramsdenschain := engineerschain ramsdenslink := engineerslink // nautical measure fathom := 6 surveyft // Originally defined as the distance from // fingertip to fingertip with arms fully // extended. nauticalmile := 1852 m // Supposed to be one minute of latitude at // the equator. That value is about 1855 m. // Early estimates of the earth's circumference // were a bit off. The value of 1852 m was // made the international standard in 1929. // The US did not accept this value until // July 1, 1954. The UK switched in 1970. // The value of this unit was adopted by the // First International Extraordinary // Hydrographic Conference, Monaco, 1929, // under the name "International nautical mile." oldUSnauticalmile := 6080.20 feet // Used in U.S. before July 1, 1954 oldUSknot := oldUSnauticalmile / hour cable := 720 surveyfoot // NIST Handbook 44, 2003 Appendix C cablelength := cable cableslength := cable metriccable := 200 m // Used by France and Spain navycablelength := 720 surveyft marineleague := 3 nauticalmile knot := nauticalmile / hr shackle := 15 fathoms // Adopted 1949 by British navy oldUKRNshackle := 12.5 fathoms // Used by Royal Navy until 1949 watch := 4 hours // time a sentry stands watch or a ship's // crew is on duty. bell := 1/8 watch // Bell would be sounded every 30 minutes. datamile := 6000 feet // Defined by U.S. Department of Defense // as a unit used in radar measurements. // Avoirdupois weight // These are actually defined as mass units to follow the recommendations // of the SI. pound := 0.45359237ee0 kg // Defined exactly, 0.45359237 kg lb := pound // From the latin libra grain := 1/7000 pound // The grain is the same in all three // weight systems. It was originally // defined as the weight of a barley // corn taken from the middle of the // ear. gr := grain ounce := 1/16 pound oz := ounce dram := 1/16 ounce dr := dram hundredweight := 100 pounds // This is the USA hundredweight cwt := hundredweight shorthundredweight := hundredweight ton := 2000 lb shortton := ton shortquarter := 1/4 shortton // Troy Weight. In 1828 the troy pound was made the first United States // standard weight. It was to be used to regulate coinage. troypound := 5760 grain troyounce := 1/12 troypound ozt := troyounce pennyweight := 1/20 troyounce // Abbreviated "d" in reference to a dwt := pennyweight // Frankish coin called the "denier" // minted in the late 700's. There // were 240 deniers to the pound. assayton := mg ton / troyounce // mg / assayton = troyounce / ton // Some other jewelers units metriccarat := 2/10 gram metricgrain := 50 mg carat := metriccarat ct := carat jewelerspoint := 1/100 carat silversmithpoint := 1/4000 inch // Apothecaries' weight appound := troypound apounce := troyounce apdram := 1/8 apounce scruple := 1/3 apdram // Liquid measure gallon := 231 in^3 gal := gallon quart := 1/4 gallon qt := quart pint := 1/2 qt pt := pint gill := 1/4 pint fluidounce := 1/16 pint floz := fluidounce fluiddram := 1/8 floz fldr := fluiddram minim := 1/60 fldr liquidbarrel := 31.5 gallon petroleumbarrel := 42 gallon // Originated in Pennsylvania oil // fields, from the winetierce barrel := petroleumbarrel oilbarrel := petroleumbarrel bbl := barrel hogshead := 63 gallon firkin := 9 gallon // Dry measures: The Winchester Bushel was defined by William III in 1702 and // legally adopted in the US in 1836. drybarrel := 7056 in^3 bushel := 2150.42 in^3 // Volume of 8 inch high cylinder with 18.5 bu := bushel // inch diameter (rounded) peck := 1/4 bushel pk := peck drygallon := 1/2 peck dryquart := 1/4 drygallon drypint := 1/2 dryquart // Grain measures. The bushel as it is used by farmers in the USA is actually // a measure of mass which varies for different commodities. Canada uses the // same bushel masses for most commodities, but not for oats. wheatbushel := 60 lb soybeanbushel := 60 lb cornbushel := 56 lb ryebushel := 56 lb barleybushel := 48 lb oatbushel := 32 lb ricebushel := 45 lb canada_oatbushel := 34 lb // Wine and Spirits measure pony := 1 floz jigger := 1.5 floz // Can vary between 1 and 2 floz shot := jigger // Sometimes 1 floz eushot := 20 ml // EU standard spirits measure // See http://bundesrecht.juris.de/eo_1988/anhang_c_119.html fifth := 1/5 gallon winebottle := 750 ml // US industry standard, 1979 winesplit := 1/4 winebottle wineglass := 4 floz magnum := 3/2 liter // Standardized in 1979, but given // as 2 qt in some references metrictenth := 375 ml metricfifth := 750 ml metricquart := 1 liter // French champagne bottle sizes split := 200 ml jeroboam := 2 magnum rehoboam := 3 magnum methuselah := 4 magnum salmanazar := 6 magnum balthazar := 8 magnum nebuchadnezzar := 10 magnum // Shoe measures shoeiron := 1/48 inch // Used to measure leather in soles shoeounce := 1/64 inch // Used to measure non-sole shoe leather // // USA slang units // buck := dollar fin := 5 dollar sawbuck := 10 dollar key := kg // usually of marijuana, 60's lid := 1 oz // Another 60's weed unit footballfield := 100 yards marathon := 26 miles + 385 yards // // British // british :- 1200000/3937014 m/ft // The UK lengths were defined by // a bronze bar manufactured in // 1844. Measurement of that bar // revealed the dimensions given // here. // Old nautical definitions // See: http://www.hemyockcastle.co.uk/nautical.htm oldbrnauticalmile := 6080 ft // Used until 1970 when the UK oldbrknot := oldbrnauticalmile / hr // switched to the international oldbrcable := 1/10 oldbrnauticalmile // nautical mile. geographicalmile := oldbrnauticalmile admiraltymile := oldbrnauticalmile admiraltyknot := oldbrknot admiraltycable := oldbrcable seamile := 6000 ft cablet := 120 fathoms hawserlaidcable := 130 fathoms oldrussiancable := 100 fathoms oldhollandcable := 123 fathoms oldportugalcable:= 141 fathoms // British Imperial weight is mostly the same as US weight. A few extra // units are added here. clove := 7 lb stone := 14 lb brhundredweight := 8 stone brquartermass := 1/4 brhundredweight longhundredweight := brhundredweight longton := 20 brhundredweight brton := longton brassayton := mg brton / troyounce // British Imperial volume measures brgallon := 4.54609ee0 l // The British Imperial gallon was canadiangallon := brgallon // defined in 1824 to be the volume of cangallon := brgallon // water which weighed 10 pounds at 62 // deg F with a pressure of 30 inHg. // In 1963 it was defined to be the space // occupied by 10 pounds of distilled // water of density 0.998859 g/ml weighed // in air of density 0.001217 g/ml // against weights of density 8.136 g/ml. // The value given here is given by [1] // as an exact value. imperialgallon := brgallon brquart := 1/4 brgallon imperialquart := brquart brpint := 1/2 brquart imperialpint := brpint brfloz := 1/20 brpint // Note difference in definition imperialfloz := brfloz brdram := 1/8 brfloz imperialdram := brdram brminim := 1/60 brdram imperialminim := brminim brscruple := 1/3 brdram imperialscruple := brscruple fluidscruple := brscruple brfluidounce := brfloz imperialfluidounce := brfloz brgill := 1/4 brpint imperialgill := brgill brpeck := 2 brgallon imperialpeck := brpeck brbarrel := 36 brgallon // Used for beer imperialbarrel := brbarrel brbushel := 4 brpeck imperialbushel := brbushel brheapedbushel := 1.278 brbushel brquarter := 8 brbushel brchaldron := 36 brbushel // Obscure British volume measures. These units are generally traditional // measures whose definitions have fluctuated over the years. Often they // depended on the quantity being measured. They are given here in terms of // British Imperial measures. For example, the puncheon may have historically // been defined relative to the wine gallon or beer gallon or ale gallon // rather than the British Imperial gallon. bag := 4 brbushel bucket := 4 brgallon last := 40 brbushel noggin := brgill pottle := 1/2 brgallon pin := 4.5 brgallon puncheon := 72 brgallon seam := 8 brbushel coomb := 4 brbushel boll := 6 brbushel firlot := 1/4 boll brfirkin := 9 brgallon // Used for ale and beer cran := 37.5 brgallon // measures herring, about 750 fish barrelbulk := 5 feet^3 brhogshead := 63 brgallon registerton := 100 ft^3 // Used for internal capacity of ships shippington := 40 ft^3 // Used for ship's cargo freight or timber brshippington := 42 ft^3 // freightton := shippington// Both register ton and shipping ton derive // from the "tun cask" of wine. displacementton := 35 ft^3 // Approximate volume of a longton weight of // sea water used to measure ship displacement waterton := 224 brgallon strike := 70.5 l // 16th century unit, sometimes // defined as .5, 2, or 4 bushels // depending on the location. It // probably doesn't make a lot of // sense to define in terms of imperial // bushels. Zupko gives a value of // 2 Winchester grain bushels or about // 70.5 liters. // obscure British lengths barleycorn := 1/3 britishinch // Given in Realm of Measure as the // difference between successive shoe sizes nail := 1/16 britishyard // Originally the width of the thumbnail, // or 1/16 ft. This took on the general // meaning of 1/16 and settled on the // nail of a yard or 1/16 yards as its // final value. [12] pole := 16.5 britishft rope := 20 britishft englishell := 45 britishinch flemishell := 27 britishinch ell := englishell // supposed to be measure from elbow to // fingertips span := 9 britishinch // supposed to be distance from thumb // to pinky with full hand extension goad := 4.5 britishft // used for cloth // misc obscure British units rood := 1/4 acre englishcarat := 3.163 grain // Originally intended to be 4 grain // but this value ended up being // used in the London diamond market mancus := 2 oz mast := 2.5 lb basebox := 31360 in^2 // Used in metal plating // alternate spellings metre := meter gramme := gram litre := liter dioptre := diopter // // Units derived the human body (may not be very accurate) // geometricpace := 5 ft // distance between points where the same // foot hits the ground pace := 2.5 ft// distance between points where alternate // feet touch the ground USmilitarypace := 30 in // United States official military pace USdoubletimepace := 36 in // United States official doubletime pace fingerbreadth := 7/8 in// The finger is defined as either the width fingerlength := 4.5 in// or length of the finger finger := fingerbreadth hand := 4 inch// width of hand palmwidth := hand // The palm is a unit defined as either the width palmlength := 8 in // or the length of the hand // // Cooking measures // // US measures cup := 8 floz tablespoon := 1/16 cup tbl := tablespoon tbsp := tablespoon Tbsp := tablespoon Tsp := tablespoon teaspoon := 1/3 tablespoon tsp := teaspoon metriccup := 250 ml // US can sizes. number1can := 10 floz number2can := 19 floz number2_5can := 3.5 cups number3can := 4 cups number5can := 7 cups number10can := 105 floz // British measures brcup := 1/2 brpint brteacup := 1/3 brpint brtablespoon := 15 ml // Also 5/8 brfloz, approx 17.7 ml brteaspoon := 1/3 brtablespoon // Also 1/4 brtablespoon dessertspoon := 2 brteaspoon brtsp := brteaspoon brtbl := brtablespoon dsp := dessertspoon // Australian australiatablespoon := 20 ml austbl := australiatablespoon // Chinese // Thai measurements are very similar so the name must be qualified chinesecatty := 1/2 kg oldchinesecatty := 4/3 lbs // Before metric conversion. chinesetael := 1/16 oldchinesecatty chinesemace := 1/10 chinesetael oldchinesepicul := 100 oldchinesecatty chinesepicul := 100 chinesecatty // Chinese usage // Thai weights thaitical := 15 grams thaibaht := thaitical // New name for thaitical, not to be confused with // the Thai currency called "Thailand_baht". thaisalung := 1/4 thaitical thaifung := 1/2 thaisalung thaisatang := 1/100 thaitical thaisadtahng := thaisatang // Alternate transliteration thaitamlung := 4 thaitical thaicatty := 10 thaitamlung thaichang := 2 thaicatty thaihap := 50 thaichang thaipicul := thaihap thaikoyan := 20 thaipicul // Japanese japancup := 200 ml jo := 71 inches * 35.5 inches // The area of a standard tatami mat. tatamimat := jo tsubo := 2 jo // Used in agriculture // densities of cooking ingredients from The Cake Bible by Rose Levy Beranbaum // so you can convert '2 cups sugar' to grams, for example, or in the other // direction grams could be converted to 'cup flour_scooped'. butter := 8. oz/cup butter_clarified := 6.8 oz/cup cocoa_butter := 9. oz/cup shortening := 6.75 oz/cup // vegetable shortening stickbutter := 1/4 lb vegetable_oil := 7.5 oz/cup cakeflour_sifted := 3.5 oz/cup // The density of flour depends on the cakeflour_spooned := 4. oz/cup // measuring method. "Scooped", or cakeflour_scooped := 4.5 oz/cup // "dip and sweep" refers to dipping a flour_sifted := 4. oz/cup // measure into a bin, and then sweeping flour_spooned := 4.25 oz/cup // the excess off the top. "Spooned" flour_scooped := 5. oz/cup // means to lightly spoon into a measure breadflour_sifted := 4.25 oz/cup // and then sweep the top. Sifted means breadflour_spooned := 4.5 oz/cup // sifting the flour directly into a breadflour_scooped := 5.5 oz/cup // measure and then sweeping the top. cornstarch := 120. grams/cup dutchcocoa_sifted := 75. g/cup // These are for Dutch processed cocoa dutchcocoa_spooned := 92. g/cup dutchcocoa_scooped := 95. g/cup cocoa_sifted := 75. g/cup // These are for nonalkalized cocoa cocoa_spooned := 82. g/cup cocoa_scooped := 95. g/cup heavycream := 232. g/cup milk := 242. g/cup sourcream := 242. g/cup molasses := 11.25 oz/cup cornsyrup := 11.5 oz/cup honey := 11.75 oz/cup sugar := 200. g/cup powdered_sugar := 4. oz/cup brownsugar_light := 217. g/cup // packed brownsugar_dark := 239. g/cup baking_powder := 4.6 grams / tsp salt := 6 g / tsp koshersalt := 2.8 g / tsp // Diamond Crystal salt, from package // Note that Morton kosher salt is // much denser. ethanol := 0.7893 g/cm^3 // Density of ethanol alcohol := ethanol // For now, density of ethanol methanol := 0.79130 g/cm^3 // Density of methanol // Egg weights and volumes for a USA large egg egg := 50. grams eggwhite := 30. grams eggyolk := 18.6 grams eggvolume := 3. tablespoons + 1/2 tsp eggwhitevolume := 2. tablespoons eggyolkvolume := 3.5 tsp // // Units derived from imperial system // ouncedal := oz ft / s^2 // force which accelerates an ounce // at 1 ft/s^2 poundal := lb ft / s^2 // same thing for a pound tondal := ton ft / s^2 // and for a ton pdl := poundal psi := pound force / inch^2 psia := psi // absolute pressure tsi := ton force / inch^2 reyn := psi sec lbf := lb force slug := lbf s^2 / ft slugf := slug force slinch := lbf s^2 / inch // Mass unit derived from inch second slinchf := slinch force // pound-force system. Used in space // applications where in/sec^2 was a // natural acceleration measure. geepound := slug tonf := ton force lbm := lb kip := 1000 lbf // from kilopound mil := 1/1000 inch thou := 1/1000inch circularinch := 1/4 pi in^2 // area of a one-inch diameter circle circularmil := 1/4 pi mil^2// area of one-mil diameter circle cmil := circularmil cental := 100 pound centner := cental caliber := 1/100 inch // for measuring bullets duty := ft lbf celo := ft / s^2 jerk := ft / s^3 australiapoint := 1/100 inch // The "point" is used to measure rainfall // in Australia sabin := ft^2 // Measure of sound absorption equal to the // absorbing power of one square foot of // a perfectly absorbing material. The // sound absorptivity of an object is the // area times a dimensionless // absorptivity coefficient. standardgauge := 4 ft + 8.5 in // Standard width between railroad track flag := 5 ft^2 // Construction term referring to sidewalk. rollwallpaper := 30 ft^2 // Area of roll of wall paper fillpower := in^3 / ounce // Density of down at standard pressure. // The best down has 750-800 fillpower. pinlength := 1/16 inch // A//17 pin is 17/16 in long in the USA. buttonline := 1/40 inch // The line was used in 19th century USA // to measure width of buttons. scoopnumber := quart^-1 // Ice cream scoops are labeled with a // number specifying how many scoops // fill a quart. // // Other units of work, energy, power, etc // // Btu definitions: energy to raise a pound of water 1 degF // "Btu" is the correct capitalization. Btu := cal lb degrankine / (gram K)// international table BTU btu := Btu BTU := btu britishthermalunit := Btu Btu_IT := Btu btu_IT := Btu_IT Btu_th := cal_th lb degrankine / (gram K) btu_th := Btu_th Btu_mean := cal_mean lb degrankine / (gram K) btu_mean := Btu_mean quad := quadrillion Btu ECtherm := 105506000 J // Exact definition, close to 1e5 Btu UStherm := 105480400 J // Exact definition therm := UStherm // The horsepower is supposedly the power of one horse pulling. Obviously // different people had different horses. horsepower := 550 foot pound force / sec // Invented by James Watt hp := horsepower metrichorsepower := 75 kilogram force meter / sec electrichorsepower := 746 W boilerhorsepower := 9809.50 W waterhorsepower := 746.043 W brhorsepower := 745.70 W donkeypower := 250 W Wh := watt hour // Thermal insulance and conductivity. Rvalue := degrankine ft^2 hr / Btu // r-value, U.S. insulation figure Cvalue := 1/Rvalue // C-value U.S. insulation conductance rating kvalue := Btu in / (ft^2 hr degF) // k-value, insulation conductance/in thick Uvalue := 1/Rvalue europeanUvalue := watt / (m^2 K) RSI := K m^2 / W // SI insulation figure // The following definitions are per NIST Special Publication 811: // https://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/appenB9.html W / (m K) ||| thermal_conductivity m^2 K / W ||| thermal_insulance K / W ||| thermal_resistance m K / W ||| thermal_resistivity // Term not defined by SI, somewhat questionable. Used in building trade. W / (m^2 K) ||| thermal_conductance // Defined by the BIPM, // http://www.bipm.org/pdf/si-brochure.pdf J/kg ||| specific_energy W/m^2 ||| heat_flux_density J/mol ||| molar_energy J/(mol K) ||| molar_heat_capacity // kvalue is defined as the amount of // heat that will be transmitted through a one inch thick piece of // homogenous material, one square foot in size, in one hour, when // there is a one degree Fahrenheit temperature difference. // // Cvalue is the kvalue multiplied by the thickness in inches and thus // gives the thermal conductance of a real piece of material with a given // thickness. // Rvalue is the reciprocal of this, and refers to the thermal insulance of a // real piece of material of a given, concrete thickness. clo := 0.155 K m^2 / W// Supposed to be the insulance // required to keep a resting person // comfortable indoors. The value // given is from NIST and the CRC, // but [5] gives a slightly different // value of 0.875 ft^2 degF hr / Btu. // Misc other measures clausius := 1ee3 cal/K // A unit of physical entropy langley := thermcalorie/cm^2 poncelet := 100 kg force m / s tonrefrigeration := ton 144 Btu / (lb day)// One ton refrigeration is // the rate of heat extraction required // turn one ton of water to ice in // a day. Ice is defined to have a // latent heat of 144 Btu/lb. tonsrefrigeration := tonrefrigeration // Irregular plural tonref := tonrefrigeration refrigeration := tonref / ton frigorie := 1000 cal_fifteen // Used in refrigeration engineering. // Energy in combustible fuels TNT := 10^9 calories/ton // So you can write tons TNT, this // is a defined, not measured, value /* From Department of the Army's authoritative study: "Effects of Nuclear Weapons", footnote 3 to section 1.45, available at: http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/www/effects/ "The majority of the experimental and theoretical values of the explosive energy released by TNT range from 900 to 1,100 calories per gram. At one time, there was some uncertainty as to whether the term "kiloton" of TNT referred to a short kiloton (2 x 10^6 pounds), a metric kiloton (2.205 x 10^6 pounds), or a long kiloton (2.24 x 10^6 pounds). In order to avoid ambiguity, it was agreed that the term "kiloton" would refer to the release of 10^12 calories of explosive energy. This is equivalent to 1 short kiloton of TNT if the energy release is 1,102 calories per gram or to 1 long kiloton if the energy is 984 calories per gram of TNT." So, evidently they don't quite specify which ton is required, but rather defined the phrase "kiloton" (of TNT is implied) as a new unit that just means 10^12 calories. It's a measure of energy, not an energy density, and to be rigorous, we shouldn't divide by the mass. But as a practical matter, we will want to divide by mass. Of all the different types of tons available, the one that matches this definition the closest shows that the short ton (2000 lb) was almost certainly originally intended, and most closely matches this definition. In addition, people have questioned if the calorie mentioned was the international calorie or the "thermal calorie", (in Frink, cal_th). To disambiguate this, on page 643, in the section "Guide to SI Units", they cite the conversion factor: calorie = 4.187 J (to 3 decimal places. This corresponds more closely to the exact value of the international calorie of 4.1868 J, and rules against the use of the thermal calorie which would be 4.184 J/ton. No idea why they truncated an exact value to an almost-exact value, but one should note that no figures in that section have more than 4 significant figures, which probably explains it.) NIST Special Publication 811 lists the definition: https://www.nist.gov/physical-measurement-laboratory/nist-guide-si-appendix-b8#T ton of TNT (energy equivalent) = 4.184e9 J However, this is not clear as to which kind of ton is intended. All of the other tons listed in that section are identified, but not this case. (Yet another problem with SP811 that I'll have to report.) If we assume that this is also for a short ton, it matches the definition from the Army study to more than 3 decimal places, so we'll assume that the short ton is intended. Since this citation is so vague, the Army study has to be taken as more authoritative until SP811 is fixed or another more authoritative citation can be found. */ /** Alan's Editorializing: I would like to have more standardized energies for various fuels but it gets really ridiculous. Some people have cited Frink's definition of "gasoline" to have up to 10% overestimation of the energy in a gallon of gasoline. That may be true but it will vary in the quality of the gasoline and the efficiency in which it is combusted (some products may not burn in common processes but you may convert their energies with more-involved processes.) A monthly-updated source for the energy in various fuels (along with their usage) can be found somewhere in the Monthly Energy Review (MER): https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/pdf/mer.pdf Which is a non-machine-parseable PDF file with tons of other stuff in it. It is really annoying in that it contains energy content of various fuels like gasoline as "Million Btu per Barrel" but as you probably know, there are lots of definitions for "barrel" (this data file contains 15 different definitions) so you have to hunt for what that means. And then they even have different internal definitions of "barrel" like "residual fuel oil equivalent barrel" or "fuel oil equivalent barrel" and then they mention "standard cubic foot" for hydrogen except there is no "standard cubic foot" as some fields define it at different temperatures and pressures. See Appendix A in the above document. As a result, you will have to do further digging to find out what barrel they even mean or which "standard cubic foot" they even mean! And after this, you will have to do further digging to figure out which Btu they mean! (Frink has at least 4 different definitions for Btu) And after all of this, you will find that the MER gives different values of the energy content per barrel for various years! And it varies a lot! For example, Table A2 says that the approximate heat content of "Natural Gas Plant Liquids" in "Million Btu per Barrel" has ranged from 4.470 in the year 1950 to 3.593 in the year 2021 Augh! This means that the variation in "Natural Gas Plant Liquids" has varied by more than 34% over that time. *** There is also the EPA Fuel Economy Labeling information which allow the U.S. Department of Energy to post the annual Fuel Economy Guide: https://www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/basic-information-fuel-economy-labeling This gives a definition of the MPGe (miles per gallon electric) which states that a gallon of gasoline is equivalent to 33.7 kWh/gallon and MPGe is thus sensibly defined as MPGe := miles / (33.7 kWh) so a car that uses 33.7 kWh to travel 100 miles is 100 MPGe. (You will see a lot of confused stuff that says MPGe is (33.7 kWh) / (100 miles) but that makes little sense as a magnitude or dimensionally.) However, the Federal Register Federal Register / Vol. 65, No. 113 / Monday, June 12, 2000 / Rules and Regulations, p. 36987 available at: http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=2000_register&docid=00-14446-filed.pdf lists derivations of the energy content of gasoline as "C = Watt-hours of energy per gallon of gasoline conversion factor = 33,705 Wh/gal" Which is 33.705 kWh per gallon gasoline compared to the EPA documents that state 33.70 kWh per gallon gasoline. Which is right? Which is the law? What is the law? Note that with any such definition there is a discrepancy between the current value of the amount of energy in a given volume of gasoline (called "gasoline") and the MPGe values. In Frink's 2022 data file, the energy in a gallon of gasoline is given as "1.4e8 J/gallon" which is about 15% higher than the EPA value, so to make this consistent, Frink's estimate for the energy in a gallon of gasoline should probably be revised downwards to be self-consistent with MPGe if/when that is implemented. */ PETN := 6.01e6 J/kg // An explosive compound, // Pentaerythrite tetranitrate // used in plastic explosive like // Semtex MPGe := miles / (33.7 kWh) // EPA definition, of miles per // gallon, electric. See above. mpge := MPGe gasoline := 33.7 kWh / gallon // So you can convert energy // to gallons gasoline. This now // matches the EPA definition for // MPGe. This definition was // changed in the Frink data from // 1.4e8 J/gallon (which is about // 38.88 kWh/gallon) on 2022-11-03. // The previous definition may have // been more accurate for very // efficient combustion of // gasoline, but this makes it // match with EPA definitions. // // For example, // 100 MPGe -> miles/(gallon gasoline) // gives // 100.0 natural_gas := 1.09e6 J/foot^3 // Energy in natural gas naturalgas := natural_gas propane := 9.63e7 J/gallon // Energy in liquid propane kerosene := 1.42e8 J/gallon // Energy in liquid kerosene oil := 41.868 GJ/metricton coal := 18.20 GJ/metricton // // Permeability: The permeability or permeance, n, of a substance determines // how fast vapor flows through the substance. The formula W = n A dP // holds where W is the rate of flow (in mass/time), n is the permeability, // A is the area of the flow path, and dP is the vapor pressure difference. // // Alan's Veto: These are damned, damned sketchy, and are going to go. // perm_0C := grain / (hr ft^2 inHg) // perm_zero := perm_0C // perm_0 := perm_0C // perm := perm_0C //perm_23C := grain / (hr ft^2 in-Hg23C) //perm_twentythree := perm_23C // // Counting measures // unity := 1 pair := 2 couple := 2 brace := 2 nest := 3 dickers := 10 dozen := 12 bakersdozen := 13 score := 20 flock := 40 timer := 40 shock := 60 gross := 144 greatgross := 12 gross // Paper counting measure shortquire := 24 quire := 25 shortream := 480 ream := 500 perfectream := 516 bundle := 2 reams bale := 5 bundles // // Paper measures // // USA paper sizes lettersize := 8.5 inch 11 inch legalsize := 8.5 inch 14 inch ledgersize := 11 inch 17 inch executivesize := 7.25 inch 10.5 inch Apaper := 8.5 inch 11 inch Bpaper := 11 inch 17 inch Cpaper := 17 inch 22 inch Dpaper := 22 inch 34 inch Epaper := 34 inch 44 inch // The metric paper sizes are defined so that if a sheet is cut in half // along the short direction, the result is two sheets which are // similar to the original sheet. This means that for any metric size, // the long side is close to sqrt(2) times the length of the short // side. Each series of sizes is generated by repeated cuts in half, // with the values rounded down to the nearest millimeter. A0paper := 841 mm 1189 mm // The basic size in the A series A1paper := 594 mm 841 mm // is defined to have an area of A2paper := 420 mm 594 mm // one square meter. A3paper := 297 mm 420 mm A4paper := 210 mm 297 mm A5paper := 148 mm 210 mm A6paper := 105 mm 148 mm A7paper := 74 mm 105 mm A8paper := 52 mm 74 mm A9paper := 37 mm 52 mm A10paper := 26 mm 37 mm B0paper := 1000 mm 1414 mm // The basic B size has an area B1paper := 707 mm 1000 mm // of sqrt(2) square meters. B2paper := 500 mm 707 mm B3paper := 353 mm 500 mm B4paper := 250 mm 353 mm B5paper := 176 mm 250 mm B6paper := 125 mm 176 mm B7paper := 88 mm 125 mm B8paper := 62 mm 88 mm B9paper := 44 mm 62 mm B10paper := 31 mm 44 mm C0paper := 917 mm 1297 mm // The basic C size has an area C1paper := 648 mm 917 mm // of sqrt(sqrt(2)) square meters. C2paper := 458 mm 648 mm C3paper := 324 mm 458 mm // Intended for envelope sizes C4paper := 229 mm 324 mm C5paper := 162 mm 229 mm C6paper := 114 mm 162 mm C7paper := 81 mm 114 mm C8paper := 57 mm 81 mm C9paper := 40 mm 57 mm C10paper := 28 mm 40 mm // gsm (Grams per Square Meter), a sane, metric paper weight measure gsm := grams / meter^2 // Also called areal density kg m^-2 ||| area_density // In the USA, a collection of crazy historical paper measures are used. Paper // is measured as a weight of a ream of that particular type of paper. This is // sometimes called the "substance" or "basis" (as in "substance 20" paper). // The standard sheet size or "basis size" varies depending on the type of // paper. As a result, 20 pound bond paper and 50 pound text paper are actually // about the same weight. The different sheet sizes were historically the most // convenient for printing or folding in the different applications. These // different basis weights are standards maintained by American Society for // Testing Materials (ASTM) and the American Forest and Paper Association // (AF&PA). poundbookpaper := lb / (25 inch 38 inch ream) lbbook := poundbookpaper poundtextpaper := poundbookpaper lbtext := poundtextpaper poundoffsetpaper := poundbookpaper // For offset printing lboffset := poundoffsetpaper poundbiblepaper := poundbookpaper // Designed to be lightweight, thin, lbbible := poundbiblepaper // strong and opaque. poundtagpaper := lb / (24 inch 36 inch ream) lbtag := poundtagpaper poundbagpaper := poundtagpaper lbbag := poundbagpaper poundnewsprintpaper := poundtagpaper lbnewsprint := poundnewsprintpaper poundposterpaper := poundtagpaper lbposter := poundposterpaper poundtissuepaper := poundtagpaper lbtissue := poundtissuepaper poundwrappingpaper := poundtagpaper lbwrapping := poundwrappingpaper poundwaxingpaper := poundtagpaper lbwaxing := poundwaxingpaper poundglassinepaper := poundtagpaper lbglassine := poundglassinepaper poundcoverpaper := lb / (20 inch 26 inch ream) lbcover := poundcoverpaper poundindexpaper := lb / (25.5 inch 30.5 inch ream) lbindex := poundindexpaper poundindexbristolpaper := poundindexpaper lbindexbristol := poundindexpaper poundbondpaper := lb / (17 inch 22 inch ream) // Bond paper is stiff and lbbond := poundbondpaper // durable for repeated poundwritingpaper := poundbondpaper // filing, and it resists lbwriting := poundwritingpaper // ink penetration. poundledgerpaper := poundbondpaper lbledger := poundledgerpaper poundcopypaper := poundbondpaper lbcopy := poundcopypaper poundblottingpaper := lb / (19 inch 24 inch ream) lbblotting := poundblottingpaper poundblankspaper := lb / (22 inch 28 inch ream) lbblanks := poundblankspaper poundpostcardpaper := lb / (22.5 inch 28.5 inch ream) lbpostcard := poundpostcardpaper poundweddingbristol := poundpostcardpaper lbweddingbristol := poundweddingbristol poundbristolpaper := poundweddingbristol lbbristol := poundbristolpaper poundboxboard := lb / (1000 ft^2) lbboxboard := poundboxboard poundpaperboard := poundboxboard lbpaperboard := poundpaperboard // When paper is marked in units of M, it means the weight of 1000 sheets of the // given size of paper. To convert this to paper weight, divide by the size of // the paper in question. paperM := lb / 1000 // // Old French distance measures, from French Weights and Measures // Before the Revolution by Zupko // frenchfoot := 4500/13853 m // pied de roi, the standard of Paris. pied := frenchfoot // Half of the hashimicubit, frenchfeet := frenchfoot // instituted by Charlemagne. frenchinch := 1/12 frenchfoot // This exact definition comes from frenchthumb := frenchinch // a law passed on 10 Dec 1799 which pouce := frenchthumb // fixed the meter at // 3 frenchfeet + 11.296 lignes. frenchline := 1/12 frenchinch // This is supposed to be the size ligne := frenchline // of the average barleycorn frenchpoint := 1/12 frenchline toise := 6 frenchfeet arpent := 180^2 pied^2 // The arpent is 100 square perches, // but the perche seems to vary a lot // and can be 18 feet, 20 feet, or 22 // feet. This measure was described // as being in common use in Canada in // 1934 (Websters 2nd). The value // given here is the Paris standard // arpent. // // Printing // fournierpoint := 0.1648 inch / 12 // First definition of the printers // point made by Pierre Fournier who // defined it in 1737 as 1/12 of a // cicero which was 0.1648 inches. olddidotpoint := 1/72 frenchinch // François Ambroise Didot, one of // a family of printers, changed // Fournier's definition around 1770 // to fit to the French units then in // use. bertholdpoint := 1/2660 m // H. Berthold tried to create a // metric version of the didot point // in 1878. INpoint := 0.4 mm // This point was created by a // group directed by Fermin Didot in // 1881 and is associated with the // imprimerie nationale. It doesn't // seem to have been used much. germandidotpoint := 0.376065 mm // Exact definition appears in DIN // 16507, a German standards document // of 1954. Adopted more broadly in // 1966 by ??? metricpoint := 3/8 mm // Proposed in 1977 by Eurograf point := 0.013837ee0 inch // exact, NIST Handbook 44, Appendix 3 printerspoint := point texscaledpoint := 1/65536 point // The TeX typesetting system uses texsp := texscaledpoint // this for all computations. computerpoint := 1/72 inch // The American point was rounded computerpica := 12 computerpoint // to an even 1/72 inch by computer postscriptpoint := computerpoint // people at some point. pspoint := postscriptpoint Q := 1/4 mm // Used in Japanese phototypesetting // Q is for quarter frenchprinterspoint := olddidotpoint didotpoint := germandidotpoint // This seems to be the dominant value europeanpoint := didotpoint // for the point used in Europe cicero := 12 didotpoint stick := 2 inches // Type sizes excelsior := 3 point brilliant := 3.5 point diamond := 4 point pearl := 5 point agate := 5.5 point ruby := agate // British nonpareil := 6 point mignonette := 6.5 point emerald := mignonette// British minion := 7 point brevier := 8 point bourgeois := 9 point longprimer := 10 point smallpica := 11 point pica := 12 point english := 14 point columbian := 16 point greatprimer := 18 point paragon := 20 point meridian := 44 point canon := 48 point // German type sizes nonplusultra := 2 didotpoint brillant := 3 didotpoint diamant := 4 didotpoint perl := 5 didotpoint nonpareille := 6 didotpoint kolonel := 7 didotpoint petit := 8 didotpoint borgis := 9 didotpoint korpus := 10 didotpoint corpus := korpus garamond := korpus mittel := 14 didotpoint tertia := 16 didotpoint text := 18 didotpoint kleine_kanon := 32 didotpoint kanon := 36 didotpoint grosse_kanon := 42 didotpoint missal := 48 didotpoint kleine_sabon := 72 didotpoint grosse_sabon := 84 didotpoint // // Information theory units // hartley := 3.32192809488 bits // log[10]/log[2] bits, or the // entropy of a // uniformly-distributed // random variable over 10 // symbols. trit := 1.58496250072 bits // log[3]/log[2] nat := 1.44269504088896 bits // log[e]/log[2] // // Computer // bps := bit/sec // Sometimes the term "baud" is // incorrectly used to refer to // bits per second. Baud refers // to symbols per second. Modern // modems transmit several bits // per symbol. byte := 8 bit // Not all machines had 8 bit // bytes, but these days most of // them do. But beware: for // transmission over modems, a // few extra bits are used so // there are actually 10 bits per // byte. nybble := 4 bits // Half of a byte. Sometimes // equal to different lengths // such as 3 bits. nibble := nybble // In computers, "kilo" tends to mean a multiple of 1024 or 2^10. // This obviously interferes with the standard meanings. // // In December 1998 the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), the // leading international organization for worldwide standardization in // electrotechnology, approved as an IEC International Standard names and // symbols for prefixes for binary multiples for use in the fields of data // processing and data transmission. One would say "kibibit" to mean 1024 bits // // https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html // Prefixes kibi ::- 2^10 // kilobinary mebi ::- 2^20 // megabinary gibi ::- 2^30 // gigabinary tebi ::- 2^40 // terabinary pebi ::- 2^50 // petabinary exbi ::- 2^60 // exabinary // Official symbols Ki :- kibi Mi :- mebi Gi :- gibi Ti :- tebi Pi :- pebi Ei :- exbi jiffy := 1/100 sec // This is defined in the Jargon File jiffies := jiffy // (http://www.jargon.org) as being the // duration of a clock tick for measuring // wall-clock time. Supposedly the value // used to be 1/60 sec or 1/50 sec // depending on the frequency of AC power, // but then 1/100 sec became more common. // On linux systems, this term is used and // for the Intel based chips, it does have // the value of .01 sec. The Jargon File // also lists two other definitions: // millisecond, and the time taken for // light to travel one foot. // // yarn and cloth measures // // yarn linear density m kg^-1 ||| reciprocal_linear_mass_density woolyarnrun := 1600 yard/pound// 1600 yds of "number 1 yarn" weighs // a pound. yarncut := 300 yard/pound // Less common system used in // Pennsylvania for wool yarn cottonyarncount := 840 yard/pound linenyarncount := 300 yard/pound // Also used for hemp and ramie worstedyarncount := 1680 ft/pound metricyarncount := meter/gram kg/m ||| linear_mass_density tex := gram / km // rational metric yarn measure, meant denier := 1/9 tex // used for silk and rayon manchesteryarnnumber := drams/(1000 yards)// old system used for silk pli := lb/in typp := 1000 yd/lb asbestoscut := 100 yd/lb // used for glass and asbestos yarn drex := 0.1 tex // to be used for any kind of yarn // yarn and cloth length skeincotton := 80*54 inch // 80 turns of thread on a reel with a // 54 in circumference (varies for other // kinds of thread) cottonbolt := 120 ft // cloth measurement woolbolt := 210 ft bolt := cottonbolt heer := 600 yards cut := 300 yards // used for wet-spun linen yarn lea := 300 yards // // drug dosage // mcg := microgram // Frequently used for vitamins iudiptheria := 62.8 microgram // IU is for international unit iupenicillin := 0.6 microgram iuinsulin := 41.67 microgram drop := 1/20 ml // The drop was an old "unit" that was // replaced by the minim. But I was // told by a pharmacist that in his // profession, the conversion of 20 // drops per ml is actually used. bloodunit := 450 ml // For whole blood. For blood // components, a blood unit is the // quanity of the component found in a // blood unit of whole blood. The // human body contains about 12 blood // units of whole blood. // // fixup units for times when prefix handling doesn't do the job // hectare := hectoare ha := hectare megohm := megaohm kilohm := kiloohm microhm := microohm cent := 1/100 dollar // British currency // // These have been supplanted by the PoundSource definitions which include // historical exchange rates for years back to 1600. // //shilling := 1/20 britainpound // Before decimalisation, there //oldpence := 1/12 shilling // were 20 shillings to a pound, // each of twelve old pence //quid := britainpound // Slang names //fiver := 5 quid //tenner := 10 quid // // Units used for measuring volume of wood // cord := 4 ft * 4 ft * 8 ft// 4 ft by 4 ft by 8 ft bundle of wood facecord := 1/2 cord cordfoot := 1/8 cord // One foot long section of a cord cordfeet := cordfoot rick := 4 ft 8 ft 16 inches // Stack of firewood housecord := 1/3 cord // Used to sell firewood for residences, // often confusingly called a "cord" boardfoot := ft^2 inch // Usually 1 inch thick wood boardfeet := boardfoot fbm := boardfoot // feet board measure stere := m^3 st := stere timberfoot := ft^3 // Used for measuring solid blocks of wood standard := 120 12 ft 11 in 1.5 in // This is the St Petersburg or // Pittsburg standard. Apparently the // term is short for "standard hundred" // which was meant to refer to 100 pieces // of wood (deals). However, this // particular standard is equal to 120 // deals which are 12 ft by 11 in by 1.5 // inches (not the standard deal). // In Britain, the deal is apparently any piece of wood over 6 feet long, over // 7 wide and 2.5 inches thick. The OED doesn't give a standard size. A piece // of wood less than 7 inches wide is called a "batten". This unit is now used // exclusively for fir and pine. deal := 12 ft 11 in 2.5 in // The standard North American deal [OED] wholedeal := 1/2 deal // If it's half as thick as the standard // deal it's called a "whole deal"! splitdeal := 1/2 wholedeal // And half again as thick is a split deal. // // Gas and Liquid flow units // // Some horribly-named flow units that I've never seen used other than once // (unexplained) in the Guinness Book of World Records which has degraded into // tabloid trash. cumec := m^3/s cusec := ft^3/s sverdrup := 1ee6 m^3/s // http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sverdrup // Conventional abbreviations for fluid flow units gph := gal/hr gpm := gal/min mgd := megagal/day cf := ft^3 ccf := 100 cf // sorta dubious, but used. cfs := cf/s cfh := cf/hour cfm := cf/min lpm := liter/min // Miner's inch: This is an old historic unit used in the Western United // States. It is generally defined as the rate of flow through a one square // inch hole at a specified depth such as 4 inches. In the late 19th century, // volume of water was sometimes measured in the "24 hour inch". Values for the // miner's inch were fixed by state statues. (This information is from a web // site operated by the Nevada Division of Water Planning: The Water Words // Dictionary at http://www.state.nv.us/cnr/ndwp/dict-1/waterwds.htm.) minersinchAZ := 1.5 ft^3/min minersinchCA := 1.5 ft^3/min minersinchMT := 1.5 ft^3/min minersinchNV := 1.5 ft^3/min minersinchOR := 1.5 ft^3/min minersinchID := 1.2 ft^3/min minersinchKS := 1.2 ft^3/min minersinchNE := 1.2 ft^3/min minersinchNM := 1.2 ft^3/min minersinchND := 1.2 ft^3/min minersinchSD := 1.2 ft^3/min minersinchUT := 1.2 ft^3/min minersinchCO := 1.56 ft^3/min minersinchBC := 1.68 ft^3/min // British Columbia // In vacuum science and some other applications, gas flow is measured // as the product of volumetric flow and pressure. This is useful // because it makes it easy to compare with the flow at standard // pressure (one atmosphere). It also directly relates to the number // of gas molecules per unit time, and hence to the mass flow if the // molecular mass is known. sccm := atm cc/min // 's' is for "standard" to indicate sccs := atm cc/sec // flow at standard pressure scfh := atm ft^3/hour // scfm := atm ft^3/min slpm := atm liter/min slph := atm liter/hour lusec := liter micron Hg force / s // Used in vacuum science // Wire gauge: this area is a nightmare with huge charts of wire gauge // diameters that usually have no clear origin. There are at least 5 competing // wire gauge systems to add to the confusion. // The use of wire gauge is related to the manufacturing method: a metal rod is // heated and drawn through a hole. The size change can't be too big. To get // smaller wires, the process is repeated with a series of smaller holes. // American Wire Gauge (AWG) or Brown & Sharpe Gauge appears to be the most // important gauge. ASTM B-258 specifies that this gauge is based on geometric // interpolation between gauge 0000, which is 0.46 inches exactly, and gauge 36 // which is 0.005 inches exactly. Therefore, the diameter in inches of a wire // is given by the formula 1/200 92^((36-g)/39). Note that 92^(1/39) is close // to 2^(1/6), so diameter is approximately halved for every 6 gauges. For the // repeated zero values, use negative numbers in the formula. The same document // also specifies rounding rules which seem to be ignored by makers of tables. // Gauges up to 44 are to be specified with up to 4 significant figures, but no // closer than 0.0001 inch. Gauges from 44 to 56 are to be rounded to the // nearest 0.00001 inch. The table below gives 4 significant figures for all // gauges. // // In addition to being used to measure wire thickness, this gauge is used to // measure the thickness of sheets of aluminum, copper, and most metals other // than steel, iron and zinc. // The numbers below are DIAMETERS. wire0000gauge := 0.4600 in wire000gauge := 0.4096 in wire00gauge := 0.3648 in wire0gauge := 0.3249 in wire1gauge := 0.2893 in wire2gauge := 0.2576 in wire3gauge := 0.2294 in wire4gauge := 0.2043 in wire5gauge := 0.1819 in wire6gauge := 0.1620 in wire7gauge := 0.1443 in wire8gauge := 0.1285 in wire9gauge := 0.1144 in wire10gauge := 0.1019 in wire11gauge := 0.09074 in wire12gauge := 0.08081 in wire13gauge := 0.07196 in wire14gauge := 0.06408 in wire15gauge := 0.05707 in wire16gauge := 0.05082 in wire17gauge := 0.04526 in wire18gauge := 0.04030 in wire19gauge := 0.03589 in wire20gauge := 0.03196 in wire21gauge := 0.02846 in wire22gauge := 0.02535 in wire23gauge := 0.02257 in wire24gauge := 0.02010 in wire25gauge := 0.01790 in wire26gauge := 0.01594 in wire27gauge := 0.01420 in wire28gauge := 0.01264 in wire29gauge := 0.01126 in wire30gauge := 0.01003 in wire31gauge := 0.008928 in wire32gauge := 0.007950 in wire33gauge := 0.007080 in wire34gauge := 0.006305 in wire35gauge := 0.005615 in wire36gauge := 0.005000 in wire37gauge := 0.004453 in wire38gauge := 0.003965 in wire39gauge := 0.003531 in wire40gauge := 0.003145 in wire41gauge := 0.002800 in wire42gauge := 0.002494 in wire43gauge := 0.002221 in wire44gauge := 0.001978 in wire45gauge := 0.001761 in wire46gauge := 0.001568 in wire47gauge := 0.001397 in wire48gauge := 0.001244 in wire49gauge := 0.001108 in wire50gauge := 0.0009863 in wire51gauge := 0.0008783 in wire52gauge := 0.0007822 in wire53gauge := 0.0006966 in wire54gauge := 0.0006203 in wire55gauge := 0.0005524 in wire56gauge := 0.0004919 in // Next we have the SWG, the Imperial or British Standard Wire Gauge. This one // is piecewise linear, so it is not generated by a simple formula. It was used // for aluminum sheets. brwire0000000gauge := 0.500 in brwire000000gauge := 0.464 in brwire00000gauge := 0.432 in brwire0000gauge := 0.400 in brwire000gauge := 0.372 in brwire00gauge := 0.348 in brwire0gauge := 0.324 in brwire1gauge := 0.300 in brwire2gauge := 0.276 in brwire3gauge := 0.252 in brwire4gauge := 0.232 in brwire5gauge := 0.212 in brwire6gauge := 0.192 in brwire7gauge := 0.176 in brwire8gauge := 0.160 in brwire9gauge := 0.144 in brwire10gauge := 0.128 in brwire11gauge := 0.116 in brwire12gauge := 0.104 in brwire13gauge := 0.092 in brwire14gauge := 0.080 in brwire15gauge := 0.072 in brwire16gauge := 0.064 in brwire17gauge := 0.056 in brwire18gauge := 0.048 in brwire19gauge := 0.040 in brwire20gauge := 0.036 in brwire21gauge := 0.032 in brwire22gauge := 0.028 in brwire23gauge := 0.024 in brwire24gauge := 0.022 in brwire25gauge := 0.0200 in brwire26gauge := 0.0180 in brwire27gauge := 0.0164 in brwire28gauge := 0.0149 in brwire29gauge := 0.0136 in brwire30gauge := 0.0124 in brwire31gauge := 0.0116 in brwire32gauge := 0.0108 in brwire33gauge := 0.0100 in brwire34gauge := 0.0092 in brwire35gauge := 0.0084 in brwire36gauge := 0.0076 in brwire37gauge := 0.0068 in brwire38gauge := 0.0060 in brwire39gauge := 0.0052 in brwire40gauge := 0.0048 in brwire41gauge := 0.0044 in brwire42gauge := 0.0040 in brwire43gauge := 0.0036 in brwire44gauge := 0.0032 in brwire45gauge := 0.0028 in brwire46gauge := 0.0024 in brwire47gauge := 0.0020 in brwire48gauge := 0.0016 in brwire49gauge := 0.0012 in brwire50gauge := 0.0010 in // The following is from the Appendix to ASTM B 258 // // For example, in U.S. gage, the standard for sheet metal is based on the // weight of the metal, not on the thickness. 16-gage is listed as approximately // .0625 inch thick and 40 ounces per square foot (the original standard was // based on wrought iron at .2778 pounds per cubic inch; steel has almost // entirely superseded wrought iron for sheet use, at .2833 pounds per cubic // inch). Smaller numbers refer to greater thickness. There is no formula for // converting gage to thickness or weight. // // It's rather unclear from the passage above whether the plate gauge values are // therefore wrong if steel is being used. Reference [15] states that steel is // in fact measured using this gauge (under the name Manufacturers' Standard // Gauge) with a density of 501.84 lb/ft3 = 0.2904 lb/in3 used for steel. // But this doesn't seem to be the correct density of steel (.2833 lb/in3 is // closer), and nobody else lists these values. // // This gauge was established in 1893 for purposes of taxation. plate000000gauge := 15/32 in // 300 oz / ft^2 plate00000gauge := 14/32 in // 280 oz / ft^2 plate0000gauge := 13/32 in // 260 oz / ft^2 plate000gauge := 12/32 in // 240 oz / ft^2 plate00gauge := 11/32 in // 220 oz / ft^2 plate0gauge := 10/32 in // 200 oz / ft^2 plate1gauge := 9/32 in // 180 oz / ft^2 plate2gauge := 17/64 in // 170 oz / ft^2 plate3gauge := 16/64 in // 160 oz / ft^2 plate4gauge := 15/64 in // 150 oz / ft^2 plate5gauge := 14/64 in // 140 oz / ft^2 plate6gauge := 13/64 in // 130 oz / ft^2 plate7gauge := 12/64 in // 120 oz / ft^2 plate8gauge := 11/64 in // 110 oz / ft^2 plate9gauge := 10/64 in // 100 oz / ft^2 plate10gauge := 9/64 in // 90 oz / ft^2 plate11gauge := 8/64 in // 80 oz / ft^2 plate12gauge := 7/64 in // 70 oz / ft^2 plate13gauge := 6/64 in // 60 oz / ft^2 plate14gauge := 5/64 in // 50 oz / ft^2 plate15gauge := 9/128 in // 45 oz / ft^2 plate16gauge := 8/128 in // 40 oz / ft^2 plate17gauge := 9/160 in // 36 oz / ft^2 plate18gauge := 8/160 in // 32 oz / ft^2 plate19gauge := 7/160 in // 28 oz / ft^2 plate20gauge := 6/160 in // 24 oz / ft^2 plate21gauge := 11/320 in // 22 oz / ft^2 plate22gauge := 10/320 in // 20 oz / ft^2 plate23gauge := 9/320 in // 18 oz / ft^2 plate24gauge := 8/320 in // 16 oz / ft^2 plate25gauge := 7/320 in // 14 oz / ft^2 plate26gauge := 6/320 in // 12 oz / ft^2 plate27gauge := 11/640 in // 11 oz / ft^2 plate28gauge := 10/640 in // 10 oz / ft^2 plate29gauge := 9/640 in // 9 oz / ft^2 plate30gauge := 8/640 in // 8 oz / ft^2 plate31gauge := 7/640 in // 7 oz / ft^2 plate32gauge := 13/1280 in // 6.5 oz / ft^2 plate33gauge := 12/1280 in // 6 oz / ft^2 plate34gauge := 11/1280 in // 5.5 oz / ft^2 plate35gauge := 10/1280 in // 5 oz / ft^2 plate36gauge := 9/1280 in // 4.5 oz / ft^2 plate37gauge := 17/2560 in // 4.25 oz / ft^2 plate38gauge := 16/2560 in // 4 oz / ft^2 // Zinc sheet metal gauge zinc1gauge := 0.002 in zinc2gauge := 0.004 in zinc3gauge := 0.006 in zinc4gauge := 0.008 in zinc5gauge := 0.010 in zinc6gauge := 0.012 in zinc7gauge := 0.014 in zinc8gauge := 0.016 in zinc9gauge := 0.018 in zinc10gauge := 0.020 in zinc11gauge := 0.024 in zinc12gauge := 0.028 in zinc13gauge := 0.032 in zinc14gauge := 0.036 in zinc15gauge := 0.040 in zinc16gauge := 0.045 in zinc17gauge := 0.050 in zinc18gauge := 0.055 in zinc19gauge := 0.060 in zinc20gauge := 0.070 in zinc21gauge := 0.080 in zinc22gauge := 0.090 in zinc23gauge := 0.100 in zinc24gauge := 0.125 in zinc25gauge := 0.250 in zinc26gauge := 0.375 in zinc27gauge := 0.500 in zinc28gauge := 1.000 in // USA ring sizes. Several slightly different definitions seem to be in // circulation. According to [15], the interior diameter of size n ring in // inches is 0.32 n + 0.458 for n ranging from 3 to 13.5 by steps of 0.5. The // size 2 ring is inconsistently 0.538in and no 2.5 size is listed. // // However, other sources list 0.455 + 0.0326 n and 0.4525 + 0.0324 n as the // diameter and list no special case for size 2. (Or alternatively they are // 1.43 + .102 n and 1.4216+.1018 n for measuring circumference in inches.) One // reference claimed that the original system was that each size was 1/10 inch // circumference, but that source doesn't have an explanation for the modern // system which is somewhat different. // // This table gives circumferences as listed in [15]. size2ring := 0.538 in pi size3ring := 0.554 in pi size3_5ring := 0.570 in pi size4ring := 0.586 in pi size4_5ring := 0.602 in pi size5ring := 0.618 in pi size5_5ring := 0.634 in pi size6ring := 0.650 in pi size6_5ring := 0.666 in pi size7ring := 0.682 in pi size7_5ring := 0.698 in pi size8ring := 0.714 in pi size8_5ring := 0.730 in pi size9ring := 0.746 in pi size9_5ring := 0.762 in pi size10ring := 0.778 in pi size10_5ring := 0.794 in pi size11ring := 0.810 in pi size11_5ring := 0.826 in pi size12ring := 0.842 in pi size12_5ring := 0.858 in pi size13ring := 0.874 in pi size13_5ring := 0.890 in pi // Old practice in the UK measured rings using the "Wheatsheaf gauge" with sizes // specified alphabetically and based on the ring inside diameter in steps of // 1/64 inch. This system was replaced in 1987 by British Standard 6820 which // specifies sizes based on circumference. Each size is 1.25 mm different from // the preceding size. The baseline is size C which is 40 mm circumference. // The new sizes are close to the old ones. Sometimes it's necessary to go // beyond size Z to Z+1, Z+2, etc. sizeAring := 37.50 mm sizeBring := 38.75 mm sizeCring := 40.00 mm sizeDring := 41.25 mm sizeEring := 42.50 mm sizeFring := 43.75 mm sizeGring := 45.00 mm sizeHring := 46.25 mm sizeIring := 47.50 mm sizeJring := 48.75 mm sizeKring := 50.00 mm sizeLring := 51.25 mm sizeMring := 52.50 mm sizeNring := 53.75 mm sizeOring := 55.00 mm sizePring := 56.25 mm sizeQring := 57.50 mm sizeRring := 58.75 mm sizeSring := 60.00 mm sizeTring := 61.25 mm sizeUring := 62.50 mm sizeVring := 63.75 mm sizeWring := 65.00 mm sizeXring := 66.25 mm sizeYring := 67.50 mm sizeZring := 68.75 mm // Japanese sizes start with size 1 at a 13mm inside diameter and each size is // 1/3 mm larger in diameter than the previous one. They are multiplied by pi // to give circumference. jpsize1ring := 39/3 pi mm jpsize2ring := 40/3 pi mm jpsize3ring := 41/3 pi mm jpsize4ring := 42/3 pi mm jpsize5ring := 43/3 pi mm jpsize6ring := 44/3 pi mm jpsize7ring := 45/3 pi mm jpsize8ring := 46/3 pi mm jpsize9ring := 47/3 pi mm jpsize10ring := 48/3 pi mm jpsize11ring := 49/3 pi mm jpsize12ring := 50/3 pi mm jpsize13ring := 51/3 pi mm jpsize14ring := 52/3 pi mm jpsize15ring := 53/3 pi mm jpsize16ring := 54/3 pi mm jpsize17ring := 55/3 pi mm jpsize18ring := 56/3 pi mm jpsize19ring := 57/3 pi mm jpsize20ring := 58/3 pi mm jpsize21ring := 59/3 pi mm jpsize22ring := 60/3 pi mm jpsize23ring := 61/3 pi mm jpsize24ring := 62/3 pi mm jpsize25ring := 63/3 pi mm jpsize26ring := 64/3 pi mm jpsize27ring := 65/3 pi mm jpsize28ring := 66/3 pi mm jpsize29ring := 67/3 pi mm jpsize30ring := 68/3 pi mm // The European ring sizes are the length of the circumference in mm minus 40. eusize1ring := 41 mm eusize2ring := 42 mm eusize3ring := 43 mm eusize4ring := 44 mm eusize5ring := 45 mm eusize6ring := 46 mm eusize7ring := 47 mm eusize8ring := 48 mm eusize9ring := 49 mm eusize10ring := 50 mm eusize11ring := 51 mm eusize12ring := 52 mm eusize13ring := 53 mm eusize14ring := 54 mm eusize15ring := 55 mm eusize16ring := 56 mm eusize17ring := 57 mm eusize18ring := 58 mm eusize19ring := 59 mm eusize20ring := 60 mm eusize21ring := 61 mm eusize22ring := 62 mm eusize23ring := 63 mm eusize24ring := 64 mm eusize25ring := 65 mm eusize26ring := 66 mm eusize27ring := 67 mm eusize28ring := 68 mm eusize29ring := 69 mm eusize30ring := 70 mm // // Abbreviations // mph := mile/hr mpg := mile/gal kph := km/hr fL := footlambert fpm := ft/min fps := ft/s rpm := rev/min rps := rev/sec mi := mile mbh := 1ee3 Btu/hour mcm := 1ee3 circularmil // // Radioactivity units // becquerel := s^-1 // Activity of radioactive source Bq := becquerel // curie := 37ee9 Bq // Defined in 1910 as the radioactivity Ci := curie // emitted by the amount of radon that is // in equilibrium with 1 gram of radium. rutherford := 1ee6 Bq // gray := J/kg // Absorbed dose of radiation Gy := gray // rad := 1ee-2 Gy // From Radiation Absorbed Dose rep := 8.38 mGy // Roentgen Equivalent Physical, the amount // of radiation which , absorbed in the // body, would liberate the same amount // of energy as 1 roentgen of X rays // would, or 97 ergs. sievert := J/kg // Dose equivalent: dosage that has the Sv := sievert // same effect on human tissues as 200 rem := 1ee-2 Sv // keV X-rays. Different types of // radiation are weighted by the // Relative Biological Effectiveness // (RBE). // // Radiation type RBE // X-ray, gamma ray 1 // beta rays, > 1 MeV 1 // beta rays, < 1 MeV 1.08 // neutrons, < 1 MeV 4-5 // neutrons, 1-10 MeV 10 // protons, 1 MeV 8.5 // protons, .1 MeV 10 // alpha, 5 MeV 15 // alpha, 1 MeV 20 // // The energies are the kinetic energy // of the particles. Slower particles // interact more, so they are more // effective ionizers, and hence have // higher RBE values. // // rem stands for Roentgen Equivalent // Mammal roentgen := 258ee-6 C / kg // Ionizing radiation that produces // 1 statcoulomb of charge in 1 cc of // dry air at stp. rontgen := roentgen // Sometimes it appears spelled this way sievertunit := 8.38 rontgen // Unit of gamma ray dose delivered in one // hour at a distance of 1 cm from a // point source of 1 mg of radium // enclosed in platinum .5 mm thick. eman := 1ee-7 Ci/m^3 // radioactive concentration mache := 3.7e-7 Ci/m^3 // // Atomic weights. The atomic weight of an element is the ratio of the mass of // a mole of the element to 1/12 of a mole of Carbon 12. The Standard Atomic // Weights apply to the elements as they occur naturally on earth. Elements // which do not occur naturally or which occur with wide isotopic variability do // not have Standard Atomic Weights. For these elements, the atomic weight is // based on the longest lived isotope, as marked in the comments. In some // cases, the comment for these entries also gives a number which is an atomic // weight for a different isotope that may be of more interest than the longest // lived isotope. // g/mol ||| molar_mass actinium := 227.0278 g/mol aluminum := 26.981539 g/mol aluminium := aluminum americium := 243.0614 g/mol // Longest lived. 241.06 antimony := 121.760 g/mol argon := 39.948 g/mol arsenic := 74.92159 g/mol astatine := 209.9871 g/mol // Longest lived barium := 137.327 g/mol berkelium := 247.0703 g/mol // Longest lived. 249.08 beryllium := 9.012182 g/mol bismuth := 208.98037 g/mol boron := 10.811 g/mol bromine := 79.904 g/mol cadmium := 112.411 g/mol calcium := 40.078 g/mol californium := 251.0796 g/mol // Longest lived. 252.08 carbon := 12.011 g/mol cerium := 140.115 g/mol cesium := 132.90543 g/mol chlorine := 35.4527 g/mol chromium := 51.9961 g/mol cobalt := 58.93320 g/mol copper := 63.546 g/mol curium := 247.0703 g/mol dysprosium := 162.50 g/mol einsteinium := 252.083 g/mol // Longest lived erbium := 167.26 g/mol europium := 151.965 g/mol fermium := 257.0951 g/mol // Longest lived fluorine := 18.9984032 g/mol francium := 223.0197 g/mol // Longest lived gadolinium := 157.25 g/mol gallium := 69.723 g/mol germanium := 72.61 g/mol gold := 196.96654 g/mol hafnium := 178.49 g/mol helium := 4.002602 g/mol holmium := 164.93032 g/mol hydrogen := 1.00794 g/mol indium := 114.818 g/mol iodine := 126.90447 g/mol iridium := 192.217 g/mol iron := 55.845 g/mol krypton := 83.80 g/mol lanthanum := 138.9055 g/mol lawrencium := 262.11 g/mol // Longest lived lead := 207.2 g/mol lithium := 6.941 g/mol lutetium := 174.967 g/mol magnesium := 24.3050 g/mol manganese := 54.93805 g/mol mendelevium := 258.10 g/mol // Longest lived mercury := 200.59 g/mol molybdenum := 95.94 g/mol neodymium := 144.24 g/mol neon := 20.1797 g/mol neptunium := 237.0482 g/mol nickel := 58.6934 g/mol niobium := 92.90638 g/mol nitrogen := 14.00674 g/mol nobelium := 259.1009 g/mol // Longest lived osmium := 190.23 g/mol oxygen := 15.9994 g/mol palladium := 106.42 g/mol phosphorus := 30.973762 g/mol platinum := 195.08 g/mol plutonium := 244.0642 g/mol // Longest lived. 239.05 polonium := 208.9824 g/mol // Longest lived. 209.98 potassium := 39.0983 g/mol praseodymium := 140.90765 g/mol promethium := 144.9127 g/mol // Longest lived. 146.92 protactinium := 231.03588 g/mol radium := 226.0254 g/mol radon := 222.0176 g/mol // Longest lived rhenium := 186.207 g/mol rhodium := 102.90550 g/mol rubidium := 85.4678 g/mol ruthenium := 101.07 g/mol samarium := 150.36 g/mol scandium := 44.955910 g/mol selenium := 78.96 g/mol silicon := 28.0855 g/mol silver := 107.8682 g/mol sodium := 22.989768 g/mol strontium := 87.62 g/mol sulfur := 32.066 g/mol sulphur := sulfur tantalum := 180.9479 g/mol technetium := 97.9072 g/mol // Longest lived. 98.906 tellurium := 127.60 g/mol terbium := 158.92534 g/mol thallium := 204.3833 g/mol thorium := 232.0381 g/mol thullium := 168.93421 g/mol tin := 118.710 g/mol titanium := 47.867 g/mol tungsten := 183.84 g/mol uranium := 238.0289 g/mol vanadium := 50.9415 g/mol xenon := 131.29 g/mol ytterbium := 173.04 g/mol yttrium := 88.90585 g/mol zinc := 65.39 g/mol zirconium := 91.224 g/mol // // Before the Imperial Weights and Measures Act of 1824, various different // weights and measures were in use in different places. // // Scots linear measure scotsinch := 1.00540054 britishinch scotsell := 37 scotsinch scotsfall := 6 scotsell scotschain := 4 scotsfall scotslink := 1/100 scotschain scotsfoot := 12 scotsinch scotsfeet := scotsfoot scotsfurlong := 10 scotschain scotsmile := 8 scotsfurlong // Scots area measure scotsrood := 40 scotsfall^2 scotsacre := 4 scotsrood // Irish linear measure irishinch := britishinch irishpalm := 3 irishinch irishspan := 3 irishpalm irishfoot := 12 irishinch irishfeet := irishfoot irishcubit := 18 irishinch irishyard := 3 irishfeet irishpace := 5 irishfeet irishfathom := 6 irishfeet irishpole := 7 irishyard // Only these values irishperch := irishpole // are different from irishchain := 4 irishperch // the British Imperial irishlink := 1/100 irishchain// or English values for irishfurlong :=10 irishchain // these lengths. irishmile := 8 irishfurlong // // Irish area measure irishrood := 40 irishpole^2 irishacre := 4 irishrood // Modern US Beer capacity beerbarrel := 31 gallons // A full beer barrel keg := 1/2 beerbarrel // The standard "keg" is a half barrel beerkeg := keg ponykeg := 1/2 keg case := 24 12 floz // Why not? beercase := case // English wine capacity measures (Winchester measures) winegallon := 231 britishinch^3 // Sometimes called the Winchester Wine Gallon, // it was legalized in 1707 by Queen Anne, and // given the definition of 231 cubic inches. It // had been in use for a while as 8 pounds of wine // using a merchant's pound of 7200 grains or // 15 troy ounces. (The old mercantile pound had // been 15 tower ounces.) winequart := 1/4 winegallon winepint := 1/2 winequart winerundlet :=18 winegallon winebarrel := 31.5 winegallon winetierce := 42 winegallon winehogshead := 2 winebarrel winepuncheon := 2 winetierce winebutt := 2 winehogshead winepipe := winebutt winetun := 2 winebutt // English beer and ale measures used 1803-1824 and used for beer before 1688 englishbeergallon := 282 britishinch^3 englishbeerquart := 1/4 englishbeergallon englishbeerpint := 1/2 englishbeerquart englishbeerbarrel := 36 englishbeergallon englishbeerhogshead := 1.5 englishbeerbarrel // English ale measures used from 1688-1803 for both ale and beer alegallon := englishbeergallon alequart := 1/4 alegallon alepint := 1/2 alequart alebarrel := 34 alegallon alehogshead :=1.5 alebarrel // Scots capacity measure scotsgallon :=827.232 britishinch^3 scotsquart := 1/4 scotsgallon scotspint := 1/2 scotsquart choppin := 1/2 scotspint mutchkin := 1/2 choppin scotsgill := 1/4 mutchkin scotsbarrel :=8 scotsgallon // Scots dry capacity measure scotswheatlippy := 137.333 britishinch^3 // Also used for peas, beans, rye, salt scotswheatlippies := scotswheatlippy scotswheatpeck :=4 scotswheatlippy scotswheatfirlot := 4 scotswheatpeck scotswheatboll :=4 scotswheatfirlot scotswheatchalder := 16 scotswheatboll scotsoatlippy := 200.345 britishinch^3 // Also used for barley and malt scotsoatlippies := scotsoatlippy scotsoatpeck := 4 scotsoatlippy scotsoatfirlot :=4 scotsoatpeck scotsoatboll := 4 scotsoatfirlot scotsoatchalder := 16 scotsoatboll // Scots Tron weight tronpound := 9520 grain tronounce := 1/20 tronpound trondrop := 1/16 tronounce tronstone := 16 tronpound // Irish liquid capacity measure irishgallon :=217.6 britishinch^3 irishpottle :=1/2 irishgallon irishquart := 1/2 irishpottle irishpint := 1/2 irishquart irishnoggin :=1/4 irishpint irishrundlet := 18 irishgallon irishbarrel :=31.5 irishgallon irishtierce :=42 irishgallon irishhogshead := 2 irishbarrel irishpuncheon := 2 irishtierce irishpipe := 2 irishhogshead irishtun := 2 irishpipe // Irish dry capacity measure irishpeck := 2 irishgallon irishbushel :=4 irishpeck irishstrike :=2 irishbushel irishdrybarrel := 2 irishstrike irishquarter := 2 irishbarrel // English Tower weights, abolished in 1528 towerpound := 5400 grain towerounce := 1/12 towerpound towerpennyweight := 1/20 towerounce // English Mercantile weights, used since the late 12th century mercpound := 6750 grain mercounce := 1/15 mercpound mercpennyweight := 1/20 mercounce // English weights for lead leadstone := 12.5 lb fotmal := 70 lb leadwey := 14 leadstone fothers := 12 leadwey // English Hay measure newhaytruss := 60 lb // New and old here seem to refer to "new" newhayload := 36 newhaytruss // hay and "old" hay rather than a new unit oldhaytruss := 56 lb // and an old unit. oldhayload := 36 oldhaytruss // English wool measure woolclove := 7 lb woolstone := 2 woolclove wooltod := 2 woolstone woolwey := 13 woolstone woolsack :=2 woolwey woolsarpler := 2 woolsack woollast :=6 woolsarpler // // Ancient history units: There tends to be uncertainty in the definitions // of the units in this section // These units are from [11] // Roman measure. The Romans had a well defined distance measure, but their // measures of weight were poor. They adopted local weights in different // regions without distinguishing among them so that there are half a dozen // different Roman "standard" weight systems. romanfoot :=296 mm // There is some uncertainty in this definition romanfeet :=romanfoot // from which all the other units are derived. pes := romanfoot // This value appears in numerous sources. In "The pedes := romanfoot // Roman Land Surveyors", Dilke gives 295.7 mm. romaninch := 1/12 romanfoot // The subdivisions of the Roman foot have the romandigit := 1/16 romanfoot // same names as the subdivisions of the pound, romanpalm :=1/4 romanfoot // but we can't have the names for different romancubit := 18 romaninch // units. romanpace :=5 romanfeet // Roman double pace (basic military unit) passus := romanpace romanperch := 10 romanfeet stade := 125 romanpaces stadia := stade stadium := stade romanmile :=8 stadia // 1000 paces romanleague := 1.5 romanmile schoenus := 4 romanmile // Other values for the Roman foot (from Dilke) earlyromanfoot :=29.73 cm pesdrusianus := 33.3 cm // or 33.35 cm, used in Gaul & Germany in 1st c BC lateromanfoot := 29.42 cm // Roman areas actuslength := 120 romanfeet // length of a Roman furrow actus := 120*4 romanfeet // area of the furrow squareactus := 120^2 romanfeet^2// actus quadratus acnua := squareactus iugerum := 2 squareactus iugera := iugerum jugerum := iugerum jugera := iugerum heredium := 2 iugera // heritable plot heredia := heredium centuria := 100 heredia centurium :=centuria // Roman volumes sextarius := 35.4 in^3 // Basic unit of Roman volume. As always, sextarii := sextarius // there is uncertainty. Six large Roman // measures survive with volumes ranging from // 34.4 in^3 to 39.55 in^3. Three of them // cluster around the size given here. // // But the values for this unit vary wildly // in other sources. One reference gives 0.547 // liters, but then says the amphora is a // cubic Roman foot. This gives a value for the // sextarius of 0.540 liters. And the // encyclopedia Brittanica lists 0.53 liters for // this unit. Both [7] and [11], which were // written by scholars of weights and measures, // give the value of 35.4 cubic inches. cochlearia := 1/48 sextarius cyathi := 1/12 sextarius acetabula := 1/8 sextarius quartaria := 1/4 sextarius quartarius := quartaria heminae := 1/2 sextarius hemina := heminae cheonix := 1.5 sextarii // Dry volume measures (usually) semodius := 8 sextarius semodii := semodius modius := 16 sextarius modii := modius // Liquid volume measures (usually) congius := 12 heminae congii := congius amphora := 8 congii amphorae := amphora // Also a dry volume measure culleus := 20 amphorae quadrantal := amphora // Roman weights libra := 5052 grain // The Roman pound varied significantly librae := libra // from 4210 grains to 5232 grains. Most of romanpound := libra // the standards were obtained from the weight uncia := 1/12 libra // of particular coins. The one given here is unciae := uncia // based on the Gold Aureus of Augustus which romanounce := uncia // was in use from BC 27 to AD 296. deunx := 11 uncia dextans := 10 uncia dodrans := 9 uncia bes := 8 uncia seprunx := 7 uncia semis := 6 uncia quincunx := 5 uncia triens := 4 uncia quadrans := 3 uncia sextans := 2 uncia sescuncia := 1.5 uncia semuncia := 1/2 uncia siscilius := 1/4 uncia sextula := 1/6 uncia semisextula := 1/12 uncia scriptulum := 1/24 uncia scrupula := scriptulum romanobol := 1/2 scrupula romanaspound :=4210 grain // Old pound based on bronze coinage, the // earliest money of Rome BC 338 to BC 268. // Egyptian length measure egyptianroyalcubit := 20.63 in // plus or minus .2 in egyptianpalm := 1/7 egyptianroyalcubit epyptiandigit := 1/4 egyptianpalm egyptianshortcubit := 6 egyptianpalm doubleremen := 29.16 in // Length of the diagonal of a square with remendigit := 1/40 doubleremen// side length of 1 royal egyptian cubit. // This is divided into 40 digits which are // not the same size as the digits based on // the royal cubit. // Greek length measures greekfoot := 12.45 in // Listed as being derived from the greekfeet := greekfoot // Egyptian Royal cubit in [11]. It is greekcubit := 1.5 greekfoot// said to be 3/5 of a 20.75 in cubit. pous := greekfoot podes := greekfoot orguia := 6 greekfoot greekfathom := orguia stadion := 100 orguia akaina := 10 greekfeet plethron := 10 akaina greekfinger := 1/16 greekfoot homericcubit := 20 greekfingers // Elbow to end of knuckles. shortgreekcubit := 18 greekfingers // Elbow to start of fingers. ionicfoot := 296 mm doricfoot := 326 mm olympiccubit := 25 remendigit // These olympic measures were not as olympicfoot := 2/3 olympiccubit// common as the other greek measures. olympicfinger := 1/16 olympicfoot// They were used in agriculture. olympicfeet := olympicfoot olympicdakylos := olympicfinger olympicpalm := 1/4 olympicfoot olympicpalestra := olympicpalm olympicspithame := 3/4 foot olympicspan := olympicspithame olympicbema := 2.5 olympicfeet olympicpace := olympicbema olympicorguia := 6 olympicfeet olympicfathom := olympicorguia olympiccord := 60 olympicfeet olympicamma := olympiccord olympicplethron := 100 olympicfeet olympicstadion := 600 olympicfeet // Greek capacity measure greekkotyle := 270 ml // This approximate value is obtained xestes := 2 greekkotyle // from two earthenware vessels that khous := 12 greekkotyle // were reconstructed from fragments. metretes := 12 khous // The kotyle is a day's corn ration choinix := 4 greekkotyle // for one man. hekteos := 8 choinix medimnos := 6 hekteos // Greek weight. Two weight standards were used, an Aegina standard based // on the Beqa shekel and an Athens (attic) standard. aeginastater := 192 grain // Varies up to 199 grain aeginadrachmae := 1/2 aeginastater aeginaobol := 1/6 aeginadrachmae aeginamina := 50 aeginastaters aeginatalent := 60 aeginamina atticstater := 135 grain // Varies 134-138 grain atticdrachmae := 1/2 atticstater atticobol := 1/6 atticdrachmae atticmina := 50 atticstaters attictalent := 60 atticmina // "Northern" cubit and foot. This was used by the pre-Aryan civilization in // the Indus valley. It was used in Mesopotamia, Egypt, North Africa, China, // central and Western Europe until modern times when it was displaced by // the metric system. northerncubit := 26.6 in // plus/minus .2 in northernfoot := 1/2 northerncubit sumeriancubit := 495 mm kus := sumeriancubit sumerianfoot := 2/3 sumeriancubit assyriancubit := 21.6 in assyrianfoot := 1/2 assyriancubit assyrianpalm := 1/3 assyrianfoot assyriansusi := 1/20 assyrianpalm susi := assyriansusi persianroyalcubit := 7 assyrianpalm // Arabic measures. The arabic standards were meticulously kept. Glass weights // accurate to .2 grains were made during AD 714-900. hashimicubit := 25.56 in // Standard of linear measure used // in Persian dominions of the Arabic // empire 7-8th cent. Is equal to two // French feet. blackcubit := 21.28 in arabicfeet := 1/2 blackcubit arabicfoot := arabicfeet arabicinch := 1/12 arabicfoot arabicmile := 4000 blackcubit silverdirhem := 45 grain // The weights were derived from these two tradedirhem := 48 grain // units with two identically named systems // used for silver and used for trade purposes silverkirat := 1/16 silverdirhem silverwukiyeh := 10 silverdirhem silverrotl := 12 silverwukiyeh arabicsilverpound := silverrotl tradekirat := 1/16 tradedirhem tradewukiyeh := 10 tradedirhem traderotl := 12 tradewukiyeh arabictradepound := traderotl // Miscellaneous ancient units parasang := 3.5 mile // Persian unit of length usually thought // to be between 3 and 3.5 miles biblicalcubit := 21.8 in hebrewcubit := 17.58 in li := 10/27.8 mile // Chinese unit of length // 100 li is considered a day's march liang := 11/3 oz // Chinese weight unit // From Encyclopedia Dictionary of the Bible chomer := 21/2 bushels homer := chomer // Alternate spelling, used in many translations letech := 1/2 chomer ephah := 1/5 letech seah := 1/3 ephah gomer := 3/10 pecks cab := 1.86 quarts kor := 97.5 gallons bath := 9.8 gallons hin := 1.62 gallons log := 1/12 hin artaba := 1.85 bushels chenice := .03 bushels // Medieval time units. According to the OED, these appear in Du Cange // by Papias. timepoint := 1/5 hour // also given as 1/4 timeminute := 1/10 hour timeostent := 1/60 hour timeounce := 1/8 timeostent timeatom := 1/47 timeounce // Given in [15], these subdivisions of the grain were supposedly used // by jewelers. The mite may have been used but the blanc could not // have been accurately measured. mite := 1/20 grain droit := 1/24 mite periot := 1/20 droit blanc := 1/24 periot // Resolution 12 of the BIPM 21st Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures // 11-15 October 1999 endorses uses of katal as SI derived unit: // http://www.bipm.org/enus/2_Committees/cgpm21/res12.pdf katal := mol/s kat := katal // SI symbol for katal // Some silliness: smoot := 5 feet + 7 inches // Height of Oliver R. Smoot Jr. see: // http://aether.lbl.gov/www/personnel/smoot/smoot-measure.html // // Some definitions using special Unicode characters. These are currently // commented-out. // At some point, I may scour Unicode symbols for things like the // Letterlike Symbols, Currency Symbols, Number Forms, etc. to find more // symbols that can be unambiguously parsed. // // Letterlike symbols: https://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2100.pdf // Currency symbols: https://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U20A0.pdf // Number forms: https://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2150.pdf // // or whatever may be found in the Unicode charts: // https://www.unicode.org/charts/ //¼- 1/4 //½- 1/2 //¾- 3/4 //¢ cent //£ britainpound //¥ japanyen //ångström angstrom //röntgen roentgen //°C degC //°R degR // Function to convert Richter Scale numbers to energy. // // This functions can take either a dimensionless number, which // indicates a number on the Richter Scale, or a unit with dimensions of // energy. If a dimensionless number is passed in, this returns an energy. // If an energy is passed in, this returns a dimensionless number which is // the number on the Richter scale. // // The Choy-Boatwright approximation (1995) assumes higher-frequency components // and is thus more realistic. This returns the amount of energy radiated // as seismic energy, not the total energy of the earthquake, which would of // course be much higher (and dissipated as sound, gravitational potential // energy changes, heating, and so on.) Richter[n] := { if (n conforms 1) // Passed in dimensionless. (Richter number) return 22387 e^(3.45388 n) J // Convert to energy. if (n conforms joule) // Passed in energy. Convert to Richter. return -2.9 + 0.28953 ln[n/J] return "Error: Richter[$n] expected dimensionless number or unit with dimensions of energy." } // Function for parsing degrees, minutes, seconds // // This returns a unit with dimensions of angle. (Radians, in this file.) // The convolutions below are necessary to try to "do the right thing" if the // degrees value is negative. // // You'll need to define your own sign convention. For example, you might // want to try the lines: // // North := +1 // South := -1 // West := +1 // East := -1 // // So you can write // DMS[105, 10, 3] West // DMS[d,m=0,s=0] := { if d<0 degrees -(-d degrees + m arcmin + s arcsec) else d degrees + m arcmin + s arcsec } // Function for displaying angles broken up into degrees, arcmin, arcsec // // usage: // angle -> DMS // // This returns a string. // DMS[angle] := { if (angle > 0 degrees) angle -> ["degrees", "arcmin", "arcsec"] else "-" + DMS[-angle] } // Function for displaying angles broken up into degrees and arcmin // // usage: // angle -> DM // // This returns a string. // DM[angle] := { if (angle > 0 degrees) angle -> ["degrees", "arcmin"] else "-" + DM[-angle] } // Function for parsing hours, minutes, seconds // // This returns a unit with dimensions of time // The convolutions below are necessary to try to "do the right thing" if the // hours value is negative. HMS[h,m=0,s=0] := { if h<0 -(-h hours + m min + s sec) else h hours + m min + s sec } // Function for parsing days, hours, minutes, seconds // // This returns a unit with dimensions of time // The convolutions below are necessary to try to "do the right thing" if the // days value is negative. DHMS[d,h=0,m=0,s=0] := { if d<0 -(-d days + h hours + m min + s sec) else d days + h hours + m min + s sec } // Function for displaying times broken up into hours, min, s // // usage: // time -> HMS // // This returns a string. // HMS[time] := { if time > 0 hours time -> ["hours", "min", "sec"] else "-" + HMS[-time] } // Function for displaying times broken up into days, hours, min, s with // unused fields being suppressed. // // usage: // time -> DHMS // // This returns a string. // DHMS[time] := { if time > 0 days time -> [0, "days", "hours", "min", "sec", 0] else "-" + DHMS[-time] }